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Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments. Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior. Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout the developed world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist . One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980. Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong. The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis. The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation. • Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies. • Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. • Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time. • New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management. • Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest. • Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics. • New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- . its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium. 宏观经济学是一种分场经济学的行为,研究是在整个经济中,一旦所有的个人的经济决策,为公司和产业被。宏观经济学认为经济现象包括国内生产总值(GDP)以及它是如何变化影响失业的国民收入的)经济成长率、价格水平。相反,微观经济学研究的就是经济行为和决策的个体消费者,公司和行业。宏观经济学可以用来分析如何影响政府的政策的目标,比如经济增长,价格稳定,充分就业和获取可持续国际收支差额。宏观经济学有时用来指一个经济理论的主要途径,包括长期战略的期望和理性综合行为。直到30年代为止,大部分的经济分析没有独立的个人经济综合行为举止。与1930年代的经济大萧条,遭受了在所有发达国家,发展国民收入的概念和产品的统计数据,但是研究领域的宏观经济学开始扩展。具有特殊影响力的想法是,约翰•梅纳德凯恩斯理论,努力向他们解释制定了经济大萧条。在那时候,综合国民经济核算,如同我们知道他们今天,是不存在的。经济学的一个挑战是一场斗争调和宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,模型。开始于20世纪50年代,macroeconomists发达micro-based模型的宏观经济行为(如消费函数)。1月Tinbergen荷兰经济学家第一个全面发展国家宏观经济模型,该模型他第一次建成为荷兰和后应用于美国和英国二战之后。第一个全球宏观经济模型,沃顿计量预测伙伴联系工程项目,发生在劳伦斯发起克莱恩和被提及他的嘉奖经济学诺贝尔经济学奖1980年。理论家如罗伯特·卢卡斯认为(是在上世纪70年代),认为至少有一些传统的凯恩斯(英国经济学家约翰梅纳德凯恩斯)宏观经济模型都是可疑的,因为他们不是来源于假设的个人行为,虽然现在还不清楚这些失败在微观经济的假定,或是对宏观经济模型。然而,最新凯恩斯主义的宏观微观模型提出了大致以支持他们的宏观经济理论有争议,一些凯恩斯主义者的想法,微观经济基础是必要的,如果模型是分析有用的。打个比方可能是,这样的事实,即量子phisics并不完全符合相对论´,并不代表没有realtivity是假的。许多重要的微观经济假设从来没有被证明,而有些人的证明是错误的。各种各样的思想学派并不总是在彼此的直接竞争,尽管他们有时会达到不同的结论。宏观经济学是一种前所未有的领域的研究。研究经济学的目标不是"正确",而是是精确的。很有可能是学校目前尚无一个经济思想完全捕捉运作方式的经济。不过,他们的贡献每一小块整体难题。当你学会更多关于每个思想学派,它能把方面的每一个为了达到一个通知的合成。传统的区别是留给经济学两种不同的方法,重点凯恩斯经济学和供方需求;(或古典)经济学、关注供应。也都是典型的观点完全排除其他,但大多数学校都往往清晰地强调一个或另一个是的理论基础。•凯恩斯经济学交融在总需求,以解释失业率和商业周期。商业周期波动,应减少通过财政政策(政府花费或多或少根据实际情况)和货币政策。早期凯恩斯主义的宏观经济学是“活动家,定期使用《召唤的政策稳定资本主义经济,虽然有些凯恩斯主义要求使用收入政策。•供给的经济学的作用很明显地在当前货币政策与财政政策。关注于货币政策应该是完全对价格的钱所确定的货币供应的需求的特点,为了金钱。它提倡货币政策,直接目标钱的价值,不目标利率。典型的钱的价值在于用参考金或其他参考。财政政策的重点是提高政府农业投资价值的收入为一个明确的认识税收的影响在国内贸易。它设置了过度强调了说的法律,它表明不会发生经济衰退需求下降、因为没有缺钱。•货币主义的带领下,由弗里德曼,认为始终通货膨胀是一种货币现象。财政政策拒绝,因为会导致“挤退”的私人生活。此外,它不希望对抗通货膨胀或通货紧缩采用主动需求管理在凯恩斯经济学,通过货币政策规则,即坚持的增长速度恒定的钱。凯恩斯•新经济发达的部分原因是为了适应新古典经济学、致力于提供凯恩斯现代经济学的微观经济基础显示出了市场的不完善就能名正言顺的需求管理等。•奥地利经济学是个自由放任主义的学校的宏观经济。它侧重于商业周期,而政府或中央银行的干扰导致偏离自然失业率的兴趣。•Post-Keynesian经济学所代表了凯恩斯经济学主流的作用,强调历史过程中不确定性和宏观经济。•新古典经济学。原理论动力的费用是凯恩斯经济学缺乏有效的微观经济基础——亦即其断言不成立于基本经济理论。这所学校出现在20世纪70年代。这所学校断言它是没有道理的主张经济会随时out-of-equilibrium”。波动的总变量遵从的在这个社会的个人不断re-optimizing新信息的状态的世界就会显现出来。后来取得了一个显式学校一样,认为宏观经济学没有微观经济基础,反而学习经济系统的工具在平衡。
time have been to sift out the
Health careA new prescription for the poor为贫穷者新开的处方America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off美国正在发展一个双重的健康系统，一重是为那些有个人保险的人群，而另一重则是为那些不那么富裕的人群Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition“IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba.“是时候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士满怀热情地宣告。在这个坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街东面的纽约健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治疗师跳舞。一位老者和一个护士站起来，开始跳事先确定好的桑巴舞。Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree.经营这个中心的综合护理管理部门（CCM）努力保持老人们的活力。约瑟夫-海莉，首席运营官解释说，这样做符合公司的最佳利益。政府给这个部门一个封顶的津贴来让他们照顾这些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就会上升，公司的利润就会萎缩。海莉先生确定说这个系统能够在一个低成本上提供最佳的护理。其他人也逐渐同意这个观点。Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment.公共医疗补助，即美国的穷人健康计划，正在被改造的过程中。在接下来的 三年内，纽约将把整个接受穷人健康计划的人群纳入“管理关怀”之中，付给公司们一个事先定好的费用来照顾那些穷人，而不是按照项目来付费。纽约不是唯一这样做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理关怀计划。这代表一种正在进行中的稳步转变，即大部分贫穷美国人接受健康关怀方式的转变。Medicaid is America’s single biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change.公共医疗补助是美国最大的单一健康计划。今年，五个美国人中的一个就会被纳入该计划一个月或更长时间。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的财政计划耗去更多联邦和地方的经费。当2014年奥巴马的健康保险改革放宽适用人群而使整个计划更加庞大的时候，成本将会进一步上升。众议院的“超级委员会”已经在考虑削减经费。然而，选择这种变化，将会有更多即刻的压力存在。Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from in December 2007 to in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care.公共医疗补助计划的参与人数在经济滑坡期间从2007年12月的 4270万人跳到了2010年6月的5030万人。奥巴马先生的经济刺激经费能够帮助付掉其中的一部分，但是钱已经被用光。面对资金短缺，一些绝望的州长砍掉了给医院和医生的补助，或是拒绝支付牙医和眼科医生的旅行费用。但是，更多地，最重要的结果是结构上的：管理关怀的拓展。States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled.各个州涉足管理关怀已经有几十年的历史了。这个趋势在90年代得到加速发展，在2009年前使用这种护理方式的公共医疗补助病人占到了72%。现在，对于剩下的人，这也是很强的推动力。像路易斯安那州这样没有管理关怀的州正在引进管理关怀。其他州也把这个拓展到原先被认为不适用的人群：举例说像加州和纽约州，正在把老人和残障人士纳入这个系统中，德州的目标是在格兰德河谷超过400000公共医疗补助收益人群。地方政治家反对这个举动，他们担心这个护理系统将会变质。但是巨大的赤字意味着他们的观点注定要被批驳。The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm.结果就是一个国家有两套截然不同的健康保险系统。大多数有个人保险的美国人仍旧害怕那些健康管理组织的想法而宁愿为单独的医疗服务付费。对于穷人来说，管理关怀已经成为一种常规。Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required.管理关怀的鼓吹者有着很高的期待。首先，他们希望这能让成本变得可以预测，其次，他们相信，这个改变可以改善病人的健康。在管理关怀中，一个病人有一个由医生和专家组成的网络。如果这个计划运行良好，医生可以监测关怀的各个方面，相对于分离的的按服务付钱的系统来说。州政府和公司的合同可以为质量定下标准。德州，举例说，将会在付款中扣除5%如果公司没有达到要求的标准。The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.”下一步是整合那些同时符合公共医疗补助和长者医疗补助计划（联邦老人医疗补助）的人群。这些“双符合”人群占据了将近40%的公共医疗补助成本和仅仅15%的人口数量。“如果管理关怀能真正比按项目付费带来更好的服务”，戴安-罗兰德，委员会（指导国会在公共医疗补助政策上进行决策）主任说：“这是一群能证明管理关怀可行的人。”But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court.但是一些人，例如像诺玛-凡斯科夫就对此表示怀疑。作为非盈利的南加州独立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服务于那些有严重健康问题的接受公共医疗补助的病人。在这些年间，她经常控告加州政府在一些政策上会伤害她的一些脆弱的客户。在10月3日，她的案子被移到了上诉法院。The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need.道格拉斯 v 独立生活中心的结果将会对公共医疗补助有深远的意义。凡斯科夫女士的诉讼影响到医院和医生的津贴削减。但是这个案子将会引领管理关怀的进程。如果中心和其他原告胜诉，私人团体将会继续在那些他们认为违反联邦法律的政策上挑战州政府。凡斯科夫女士认为说加州的支付削减计划会让她的客户失去得到服务的机会，她还担心，在管理关怀之下，那些残障人士可能不能见到那些他们需要的专家。The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so.问题是怎么监管在不同州试运行的管理关怀。到目前为止，公共医疗补助受益者已经能够在法庭中挑战政府。然而，如果上诉法庭结果不利于中心，那么这条路将会被关闭。如果州政府没有提供合适的关怀的话，公共医疗补助和长者医疗关怀中心理论上是能对此进行干涉，但事实上，他们没有太多办法。“I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may struggle to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care.“我是管理关怀的拥护者”，萨拉-罗森博姆，一位乔治华盛顿大学教授说，“但是这种转变可能在没有联邦监管的情况下发生。”公共医疗补助的受益者和你脆弱，健康程度整体上比一般美国人要差。公司可能在削减成本的同时挣扎着同样提供良好的服务。如果州政府们不好好起草他们的合同，或没有警觉地监控病人的健康的话，他们在管理关怀上的实验可能会是一场灾难。另一方面，如果州政府们认真的话，他们能为那个困扰美国人多年的问题提供答案，即怎么提供优质的便宜的健康关怀。
在家乡，我有很多从商的朋友。时常可以从他们的身上和口头中捕捉到家乡经济投资环境的一些信息。其实，几届市政府的换届领导都一直不遗余力地抓经济建设。制定的政策和规划也很好。这几年为了发展当地经济。有一位副市长专门负责到外地招商引资。现在，市里几家最大的休闲娱乐餐饮单位就是政府从外面长途跋涉跑出来的。市内有107国道，新建的108国道也穿市而过。不少的企业考察团相继来考察，而且政府也在南郊拟建了一片工业园区。交通有了，土地有了，政策也有了。可是在大好的形势下，一批批投资者来了又走。这是为什么呢？老百姓在着急，市领导也在着急。不着急的却是那些在大好形势下乘机中饱私囊的腐朽的中基层干部！正是这些贪官污吏不思进取贪图享乐搅坏了投资环境，拉了经济建设的后腿！我个人对于社会的一些阴暗面没有私愤。社会原本就是在不断的改革中进步的。我的文字呼喊顶多算是一种民声，我的建议也顶多代表一个热爱家乡的青年人的观点。只是，如果一方父母官能够客观谨慎地体察民声采纳民言，相信就可以更好地去造福一方百姓。所以，在这里，我要用我的微弱之声为家乡呐喊，为家乡的经济建设奉献自己的几点浅拙之见。 招商引资最重要的一个因素应该就是投资环境。一个地方要吸引人才来投资来发展其实也是一个双向的选择。人才要选择环境。那么人才会选择什么样的环境呢？一个地方的政策当然是大环境。其次还有人文地理经济语言等各方面。譬如，在上海闸北郊区的中学我发现了一个小细节。几乎每所学校的条幅批语里都会有“讲好普通话”相关的内容。这让我想到自己家乡的语言环境是非常保守封闭的。家乡的人们很多都会存在一个偏见，认为讲普通话是“洋气”是“摆谱”。很难想象，一个没有推广普通话甚至排斥普通话的地方能够给人开放的感觉。还有，家乡的老百姓尤其是从商的人普遍反映税收繁杂紊乱。有些税收项目是文件上没有而其他地方也没有的。我亲眼看到一些税务人员可以在消费场所吃不用钱穿不用买单。当我问朋友，为什么这些人拿了你的衣服不用给钱时。他告诉我如果收了他们的钱就会被这些人以莫名的税收项目来修理你。更为荒诞的是，这些穿着制服的国家工作人员在年节关头以“借钱填补完成税收任务”的名义直接向大小的经营单位和个人开口要钱！这是我亲眼看到的眼睁睁的事实！悲哀！国家税收人员神圣的身份在这个小城市竟然成了“吃拿卡要”的特权代表。试问，这样的投资环境怎能不让投资者寒心？学学江浙一带的城市是怎样招商引资迅速发展富裕的。能不能也尝试着降低甚至可以免除两三年的税收以放宽对投资者的要求呢？看到那么多已经开拓出来的土地，我笑着对朋友说：“如果我是决策者，我会将这些土地两年的免费使用权送给外来的投资者。那么两年后这些土地不会继续荒废，政府和民众也可以收益了。”玩笑归玩笑，但是很多老百姓都在期待着家乡富裕的那一天。 当然，一个地方的经济发展必然是诸多综合因素的结果。我所能看到和认知的只会是其中片面的一部分。但是，引用企业界的一句话：细节铸造成功。相信政府能够在把握大局的同时能够将每一个细节逐一改革和完善。真正地让老百姓满意。真正地营造出一个好的投资环境，迎来家乡经济迅猛发展的新时代。
【摘要】随着社会的进步，现如今，可持续发展的概念已经渗透到社会经济生活的各个领域，可持续发展的经济法指的是以社会为本位的经济法，它不仅仅考虑的是经济的增长而且还同时兼顾到社会、文化、环境等各个方面的协调、综合的发展和进步。它追求的是社会正义，维护的是社会的整体利益。【关键词】可持续发展;经济法中图分类号可持续发展的经济法概念可持续发展理论的形成经历了相当长的历史过程，最终在1987年正式提出。可持续发展是指既满足当代人的需求又不危害后代人满足其自身需要的发展，既考虑当前发展的需求又考虑未来发展的需求。这种发展模式的提出是基于对18、19世纪那种掠夺式的发展的反思后做出的。当今可持续发展的观念已经渗透到了社会经济生活的各个领域。“既满足当代人发展的需求，同时又不损害后代人满足需求的能力”这是关于可持续发展的经典表述。经济法小论文根据这个表述，在经济发展过程中，就不能够只追求经济的自我增长，而是既要考虑到经济的主要的产值方面的实现，又要保持能够在未来能够拥有永不衰竭的发展的动力。可持续发展已经成为社会发展的一个全面战略，它主要包括在经济方面的可持续发展，在生态方面的可持续发展，在社会方面的可持续发展。经济方面的可持续发展指的是鼓励经济增长而不是以环境保护为名取消经济增长，但可持续发展不仅重视经济增长的数量，更追求经济发展的质量。生态可持续发展指的是经济建设和社会发展要与自然承载能力相协调。发展的同时必须保护和改善地球生态环境，保证以可持续的方式使用自然资源和，使人类的发展控制在地球承载能力之内。社会方面的可持续发展是指改善人类生活质量，提高人类健康水平，创造一个保障人们平等、自由、的社会环境。在人类可持续发展系统中，经济可持续是基础，生态可持续是条件，社会可持续才是目的。可持续发展的经济法是一种与各个要素之间建立广泛而又友好的关系，并实现其良好的互动局面的法则。着中法则的最终实现会对社会的发展起到积极的作用，而其本身的实现又是需要各个方面相互配合的。因此，可持续发展是在人与自然，经济与环境，文化，社会等各个方面建立良好关系基础之上，而后实现的一种多边的相互作用的共赢局面。经济法价值观念与可持续发展理念的统一谈论这个话题，主要是从可持续发展理念的三个原则入手，公平性原则，持续性原则，共同性原则。可持续性原则可持续性原则指的是在能够承载范围内的自然、经济、社会各个系统的协调发展。其主旨是，人类的经济建设，社会发展等都在生态环境的承载范围内。在追求经济发展的同时，要对自然资源有限度的利用。社会的发展，生活质量的提高如果只是重视眼前的利益，用浪费资源的方式来获得经济的增长是不可取的。所以这一点在经济法中必须体现。它的存在可以保证经济发展的同时，也不至于是以牺牲其他的资源，环境等作为条件的交换。这样是督促经济的发展走集约型路线的一种行之有效的方法。公平性原则可持续发展强调发展应该追求两方面的公平:一是本代人的公平即代内平等。二是代际间的公平即世代平等。可持续发展就是要满足全体社会人民的愿望，两极分化是不能够实现可持续发展的，它是可持续发展最大的敌人。满足这一代人的愿望，也必须以不牺牲后代人的发展需要作为前提。经济法所追求的最终目的，引入公平性原则是必不可少的。它能够保证经济的持续的，有效的发展。共同性原则可持续发展作为发展的总目标，所体现的公平性原则和持续性原则，则是应该共同遵从的。一方面，共同性原则其实是和公平性原则相互联系在一起的。作为社会的一员，我们必须共同的去遵守经济发展过程中应该遵守的法律，而不是为了个人的利益去损害集体的或者他人甚至是下一代的利益。另一方面，是指它要实现的是经济、社会、教育、资源等各个方面的共同发展，而并不是某一方面的提高。所以，这一点也是经济法立法必须引入的规则。3经济法的必由之路———可持续发展社会的发展是以各个方面的协调发展作为成功的衡量的标准，如果仅仅是经济利益上取得了收益，那将是不能够被定义为社会的发展。从经济法的角度来看，社会的发展遵循可持续发展的原则，究其实质是体现了经济法的公平价值。经济法强调的并不是绝对的公平，但是他要求在成人社会成员差异的条件下来保证大多数社会成员的公平。从这个层面上来看，可持续发展理念与经济法的理念具有一致性。首先，无论是可持续发展的理念还是经济法的观念，都始终是从社会出发的，是对于社会整体作为思考对象的。从经济法的角度来说，强调的是社会整体利益，但同时也不放弃个人的利益。就是将集体的利益和个人的利益都纳入考虑的范围。而作为可持续发展而言，也是从社会整体成员考虑为出发点，经济法小论文并且根据社会的不断变化的情况做及时的调整，对于会破坏经济平稳发展的不利因素采取相印的措施，及时的进行调整。由此可见，可持续发展的观念和经济法的观念都是站在社会全体利益的视角进行思考的。其次，从市场和经济法的角度来看，市场的调节具有相对的滞后性，不公平性，而是常规制法就弥补了由于各种因为垄断或者不正当的竞争而导致的一些阻碍市场正常运行的因素。我们从可持续发展的内容可知，可持续发展是既要满足当代人发展的需求，又不损害后代发展的需求。这也就是说既要实现同代的公平又要实现代际间的公平。从此看到，可持续发展的观念和经济法的观念不谋而合，都是要实现公平，共同发展。把阻碍当代人和同代人不平衡发展的因素消除，从而实现可持续发展。第三，从国家的宏观调控和经济法之间来看。宏观调控的主要任务是保持经济总量的基本平衡，促进经济结构的优化，推动社会的进步。经济法的制定最终也是要实现这样的目标为目的的。以保证国家的战略目标能够实现。总之，经济法和可持续发展是一脉相承的，是存在着不尽暗合的。用经济法来保证可持续发展的实现是一种最自然的结合。在可持续发展的观念指导下，经济法会在理念和价值观上得到新的突破。 仅供参考。谢谢采纳
珠江三角洲地区改革发展的重要意义(一)30年改革发展的成就。改革开放30年来，珠江三角洲地区充分发挥改革“试验田”的作用，率先在全国推行以市场为取向的改革，较早地建立起社会主义市场经济体制框架，成为全国市场化程度最高、市场体系最完备的地区；依托毗邻港澳的区位优势，抓住国际产业转移和要素重组的历史机遇，率先建立开放型经济体系，成为我国外向度最高的经济区域和对外开放的重要窗口；带动广东省由落后的农业大省转变为我国位列第一的经济大省，经济总量先后超过亚洲“四小龙”的新加坡、香港和台湾，奠定了建立世界制造业基地的雄厚基础，成为推动我国经济社会发展的强大引擎；人口和经济要素高度聚集，城镇化水平快速提高，基础设施比较完备，形成了一批富有时代气息又具岭南特色的现代化城市，成为我国三大城镇密集地区之一；城乡居民收入水平大幅提高，覆盖城乡的社会保障体系初步形成，教育、科技、文化、卫生、体育等各项社会事业迅速发展，公共服务体系基本建立。珠江三角洲地区已经站在了一个新的更高的历史起点上。珠江三角洲地区改革发展的巨大成就雄辩地证明，发展是硬道理，改革开放是发展中国特色社会主义、实现中华民族伟大复兴的必由之路。(二)面临的挑战和机遇。在经济全球化和区域经济一体化深入发展，尤其是当前国际金融危机不断扩散蔓延和对实体经济的影响日益加深的背景下，珠江三角洲地区的发展受到严重冲击，国际金融危机的影响与尚未解决的结构性矛盾交织在一起，外需急剧减少与部分行业产能过剩交织在一起，原材料价格大幅波动与较高的国际市场依存度交织在一起，经济运行困难加大，深层次矛盾和问题进一步显现。主要是：产业层次总体偏低，产品附加值不高，贸易结构不够合理，创新能力不足，整体竞争力不强；土地开发强度过高，能源资源保障能力较弱，环境污染问题比较突出，资源环境约束凸显，传统发展模式难以持续；城乡和区域发展仍不平衡，生产力布局不尽合理，空间利用效率不高；社会事业发展相对滞后，人力资源开发水平、公共服务水平和文化软实力有待进一步提高；行政管理体制、社会管理体制等方面的改革任务仍然繁重，改革攻坚难度越来越大。另一方面，珠江三角洲地区也面临着重大机遇：国际产业向亚太地区转移的趋势不会改变，亚洲区域经济合作与交流方兴未艾，中国—东盟自由贸易区进程加快；我国仍处在重要战略机遇期，工业化、信息化、城镇化、市场化、国际化深入发展，粤港澳三地经济加快融合，经济发展具有很强的后劲；特别是经过改革开放30年发展，珠江三角洲地区积累了雄厚的物质基础，经济实力、区域竞争力显著增强，这些都为珠江三角洲地区加快改革发展提供了有利条件和广阔空间。(三)重要意义。在新形势下，推进珠江三角洲地区加快改革发展，充分发挥自身优势，着力解决突出问题，变压力为动力，化挑战为机遇，把国际金融危机带来的不利影响降到最低程度，加快推动经济社会又好又快发展，既是该地区转变经济发展方式的必然选择，也是我国当前保持经济增长的迫切要求和实现科学发展的战略需要。加快珠江三角洲地区的改革发展，有利于推进珠江三角洲地区经济结构战略性调整，增强经济发展的动力和活力；有利于提高我国的综合实力、国际竞争力和抵御国际风险的能力，更好地参与国际经济合作与竞争；有利于辐射和带动环珠江三角洲和泛珠江三角洲区域的经济发展，促进形成优势互补、良性互动的区域经济发展新格局；有利于贯彻“一国两制”方针，保持港澳地区长期繁荣稳定；有利于深化体制机制创新，为建立实现科学发展的体制机制探索新路径、提供新经验。
丰县是要发展，经济的起步到腾飞是需要一个过程的，我们不能强求每个地区都有一个一致的步伐，各个地方都有自己的政策与方法，如果我们的政府是在干实事，发展慢点没关系，步伐慢点也有其好处。 大家都知道在我们国家的经济在告诉发展过程中很大一部分是以牺牲环境为代价的，而我们丰县的环境基本上还是保持了原生态，尽管今年的发展已经出现了一些污染的企业，我希望我们的政府能够意识到环境的重要性，既然我们的环境还保持了一个比较好的状态，我们在以后的发展中就不能够破坏它，走先发展经济后治理环境的道路是得不偿失的，大家都知道我们的GDP增长率是不计我们的环境成本的，如果把环境的破坏成本算进我们的经济增长率的话，很有可能我们的增长率是负值，这不是危言耸听，在丰县的工业经济刚刚起步的今天我希望我们的政府能够好好发挥政府的功用来好好保护我们赖以生存的环境，是真正在我现在所在的环境中的感受才促使我发现原来家乡的环境真的很好。 说到今年的经济实力排名，至于丰县是徐州倒数第一这个说法我不做任何评论。我个人认为能够认识到与别人的差距就说明我们的人民在前进的道路上是有动力的，也就是说如果我们的政府如果能够正确的引导，丰县的经济腾飞并不是梦想，我们很有可能成为第二个昆山，关键是人的因素，事在人为。很高兴有这么多的人在关系家乡的发展，从我个人的角度我是不赞成开发我们的煤矿等矿产资源的，当今中国的发展是高耗能发展，我们投入的能源与产出相差很多，如果我们靠出卖我们的矿产资源来发展我们的经济我个人认为这是很不负责任的做法。美国的战略能源储备是在现有阶段尽量不开发自己的矿产资源，而愿出从别的国家和地区来进口，这是整个美国的战略能源意识，换句话说当我们的发展脚步到了21世纪，能源问题已经成为制约经济发展的一个重要因素。既然我们占有了一定的资源，我们应当珍惜，是珍惜cherish!大家知道如果把煤拿出来直接做燃料烧掉是很可惜也是一种很不负责任的资源利用方法，煤炭是一种重要的化工原料，而以我们现有的科学技术水平还不能很好的利用，但只要有煤炭存在就是我们的竞争又是，如果大家有时间和兴趣可以做一下我们丰县的SWOT分析，反正个人觉得在这个时候开采我们的煤炭资源是不合时宜的。 每次和别人谈论起我的家乡我总会很自豪的告诉他们我们的家乡环境很好，发展潜力很大，因为在我现在在的地方有一个好的环境简直就是奢望，尽管这里的经济并不发达，但是环境污染相当严重。所以在丰县经济发展的道路上我希望我们不要走先发展后治理的道路，也希望我们的政府在招商引资的时候能过把好环境友好关，看到我们的人民有建设家乡的热切期望，那么能够把家乡建设好也只是时间的问题。无论真假我们现在的排名应该当作一种前进的动力。衷心希望我们的家乡能有一个美好的明天！
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科技小论文 ——警惕全球变暖 最近这几年，大家觉得天气一下子就变热了，原本凉爽的秋天现在几乎要到10月下旬才开始，8月份最热的天居然达到了40度以上。这是为什么呢？原来，是人类自己惹的祸。 随着人类高科技发展进程越来越快，科学随之产生的副作用逐渐体现出来，全球变暖就是一个例子。天气炎热，在酷暑里泡空调成为了一项新的“业余爱好”，但人们可曾想过，空调会带来什么负面影响呢？答案当然是肯定的，空调排放的气体中含有大量的甲烷，输送到外面，甲烷也是导致全球变暖的气体。同时，空调还会浪费掉许多电，所以要尽量避免用空调，适当即可。 而另一个原因就是：二氧化碳！汽车尾气与工厂废气中含有大量二氧化碳，而二氧化碳最可能导致温室效应（即全球变暖）现在汽车逐渐增多，据有关方面统计，到21世纪，汽车在全世界已有7亿辆，大量的尾气严重影响着我们，咳嗽，喉咙发炎……最重要的是全球变暖。有人统计，美国人均二氧化碳排放量已达到了20吨一年！中国每年的二氧化碳排放量人均排放量也有吨一年！我们周围的环境在恶劣地变化。 更重要的原因就是：森林锐减，水资源破坏，生态链严重被破坏，大量土地贫瘠，水污染严重，据统计全世界10%的河水被污染，新鲜的淡水供应成了问题，同时由于矿物质被大量使用，燃烧出的CO2气体导致了大气污染，同时臭氧层被严重破环，南北极出现臭氧层洞，加剧了环境的恶化。这样恶性循环的话，最终会导致人们的生活被严重影响。 这样一来的悲剧是什么呢？当然是显而易见了！天气加热，海平面上涨，南北极冰川融化，海滨城市，岛国被淹。这一切，都严重影响了人类的生存，实验证明，以后300年，海平面将上涨半米多，这还是最乐观的数据。再过7年，全球变暖将会无可逆转地持续。更可怕的是，由于北极冰融化，降雨量加强，大量淡水汇入北大西洋，破坏了墨西哥暖流，一旦墨西哥暖流被切断后，欧洲西北部温度将会下降5—8度之多，从而造成的影响，很可能引发新的冰河时期！想必大家一定看过《后天》这部电影，剧中的情景正是几百年后对我们地球的一个真实写照：龙卷风，冰层断裂，温度急剧下降，冰风暴，冻雨，地震，洪水，海啸……这并不是疯狂的幻想，如果人类不停止毁坏环境的话，这将成为现实！全球变暖不仅仅是天气变热，更会牵连出许多负面影响！ 为了拯救地球，我们应该尽量做到：不开空调，使用回收环保纸张，舍弃肉类（牛排）食品（牛消化中含有一氧化二氮，如果你转为素食主义者，每年二氧化碳的排放量将减少吨！）不用塑料袋，乘公交车……生活中的点点滴滴。其实环保并不难，只要你支持环保，就是你给这个星球的最好礼物，不需要太多言辞，只要每个人都行动起来，就会是一股强大的力量！如今，日本，英国，美国等国家纷纷行动起来，我们虽然也采取了行动，但，对于一个有13亿人口的泱泱大国，这一点，还是不够的。所以，警惕全球变暖，是全人类为了挽救地球的唯一方法，有人也许会说：我们不是可以移居到别的星球上去吗？答案虽是肯定的，但那又能容纳多少人呢？有人说：治理温室效应的资金太大了，对金融来说是天价。但，如果一直拖延，最终的结果，是我们的地球面目全非，别说金
time have been to sift out the
如何理财，如何投资，怎么规避市场风险?下面是我为你整理的关于财经类文章精选，希望对你有用!
关于财经类文章精选1
“小非农”ADP素来和非农就业有较强正相关性，可作为当月非农就业人数变化的先导指标。周四(1月5日)ADP数据预期17而公布值利好金银，也基本上可以确定非农走好，但也不是绝对。周五(1月6日)21:30将公布美国12月季调后非农就业人口与12月失业率，12月非农人口预计增加万人，而前值也是，这有很大几率造成单边行情，届时操作需谨慎。
近期黄金走强与美指继续回落脱不了关系，昨日美指一度跌至给予黄金多头更大的动力，这是造成金价冲高1185一线的主要因素。目前美指小幅反弹，结合下文技术面分析来看，短期谨慎追多。
文章内容仅供参考，不构成投资建议。投资有风险，投资者据此操作，风险自担，转载请注明出处!
周线图上看，K线运行于均线MA5-1150与MA10-1185之间，布林带三轨继续向下运行，但下轨有走平迹象，加上早晨十字星带来的预示，公众号杨珞谦认为趋势正向多头转变。各指标虽然不强势，但都有由弱走强趋势，副图指标MACD红色能量柱持续缩量，KDJ金叉初建，RSI也有金叉迹象，这都暗示着金价后期将走强。
日线级别上，布林带三轨走平，K线运行于上轨附近，也就是昨日杨珞谦提及破位1172则看1180一线强阻力位。副图指标MACD红色能量柱持续放量，其他指标偏多，这也是今日回落看多的部分依据。
4小时级布林带三轨上扬，K线沿布林带上轨一路高走，均线也呈多头排列，多头较为强势。但RSI指标已现很明显的头顶肩形态，KDJ已结死叉有空头发散迹象，加上美指开始反弹且上方空间较大，短期金价恐有回落，下方关注均线MA10-1173附近支撑位。综合来看，短期可先逢高做空一次，随后继续保持低多的思路即可。
关于财经类文章精选2
1.学会建立头寸、斩仓和获利
“建立头寸”是开盘的意思。开盘也叫敞口，就是买进一种货币，同时卖出另一种货币的行为。开盘之后，长了(多头)一种货币，短了(空头)另一种货币。选择适当的汇率水平以及时机建立头寸是盈利的前提。如果入市时机较好，获利的机会就大;相反，如果入市的时机不当，就容易发生亏损。
“斩仓”是在建立头寸后，所持币种汇率下跌时，为防止亏损过高而采取的平盘止损措施。例如，以的汇率卖出英镑，买进美元。后来英镑汇率上升到，眼看名义上亏损已达200个点。为防止英镑继续上升造成更大的损失，便在的汇率水平买回英镑，卖出美元，以亏损200个点结束了敞口。有时交易者不认赔，而坚持等待下去，希望汇率回头，这样当汇率一味下滑时会遭受巨大亏损。
“获利”的时机比较难掌握。在建立头寸后，当汇率已朝着对自己有利的方向发展时，平盘就可以获利。例如在120买入美元，卖出日元;当美元上升至122日元时，已有2个日元的利润，于是便把美元卖出，买回日元使美元头寸轧平，赚取日元利润;或者按照原来卖出日元的金额原数轧平，赚取美元利润，这都是平盘获利行为。掌握获利的时机十分重要，平盘太早，获利不多;平盘太晚，可能延误了时机，汇率走势发生逆转，不盈反亏。
2.买涨不买跌
外汇买卖同股票买卖一样，宁买升，不买跌。因为价格上升的过程中只有一点是买错了的，即价格上升到顶点的时候，汇价象从地板上升到天花板，无法再升。除了这一点，其他任意一点买入都是对的。
在汇价下跌时买入，只有一点是买对的，即汇价已经落到最低点，就象落到地板上，无法再低。除此之外，其他点买入都有是错的。
由于在价格上升时买入，只有一点是买错的，但在价格下降时买入却只有一点是买对的，因此，在价格上升时买入盈利的机会比在价格下跌时大得多。
3.“金字塔”加码
“金字塔”加码的意思是：在第一次买入某种货币之后，该货币汇率上升，眼看投资正确，若想加码增加投资，应当遵循“每次加码的数量比上次少”的原则。这样逐次加买数会越来越少，就如：“金字塔”一样。因为价格越高，接近上涨顶峰的可能性越大，危险也越大。
4.于传言时买入(卖出)，于事实时卖出(买入)
外汇市场与股票市场一样，经常流传一些消息甚至谣言，有些消息事后证明是真实的，有些消息事后证实只不过是谣传。交易者的做法是，在听到好消息时立即买入，一旦消息得到证实，便立即卖出。反之亦然，当坏消息传出时，立即卖出，一旦消息得到证实，就立即买回。如若交易不够迅速很有可能因行情变动而招至损失。
5.不要在赔钱时加码
在买入或卖出一种外汇后，遇到市场突然以相反的方向急进时，有些人会想加码再做，这是很危险的。例如，当某种外汇连续上涨一段时间后，交易者追高买进了该种货币。突然行情扭转，猛跌向下，交易员眼看赔钱，便想在低价位加码买一单，企图拉低头一单的汇价，并在汇率反弹时，二单一起平仓，避免亏损。这种加码做法要特别小心。如果汇价已经上升了一段时间，你买的可能是一个“顶”，如果越跌越买，连续加码，但汇价总不回头，那么结果无疑是恶性亏损。
6.不参与不明朗的市场活动
当感到汇市走势不够明朗，自己又缺乏信心时，以不入场交易为宜。否则很容易做出错误的判断。
7.不要肓目追求整数点
外汇交易中，有时会为了强争几个点而误事，有的人在建立头寸后，给自己定下一个盈利目标，比如要赚够200美元或500人民币等，心里时刻等待这一时刻的到来。有时价格已经接近目标，机会很好，只是还差几个点未到位，本来可以平盘收钱，但是碍于原来的目标，在等待中错过了最好的价位，坐失良机。
8.在盘局突破时建立头寸
盘局指牛皮行市，汇率波幅狭窄。盘局是买家和卖家势均力敌，暂时处于平衡的表现。无论是上升过程还是下跌过程中的盘局，一旦盘局结束时，市价就会破关而上或下，呈突破式前进。这是入市建立头寸的大好时机，如果盘局属于长期牛皮，突破盘局时所建立的头寸获大利的机会更大。
对于众多投资人来说炒外汇已经不是新鲜的话题，但是在浩如烟海的炒外汇大军中胜利却往往只属于少数人。面对同样的市场到底该怎么做才能保证自己的利益实现最大化呢。外汇买卖应该注意哪些问题呢。
文章内容仅供参考，不构成投资建议。投资有风险，投资者据此操作，风险自担，转载请注明出处!
关于财经类文章精选3
人民币贬值的步伐轰隆，与国人的心理互成反馈，市场极不淡定。前一日，随着个人售汇额度的更新，外管局的严格换汇政策引来一片惊愕!
后一日，离岸人民币就上演气势如虹的暴涨。离岸人民币兑美元1月4日连续升破、、、、、、、八大关口，创近一年最大涨幅。
德国商业银行首席中国经济师周浩称，从盘面上来看，并未看到央行在离岸市场明显干预痕迹。离岸人民币暴涨体现了“成本”与“预期”之间微妙关系。
而日前，人民币“被破7”的乌龙甚至逼得央行半夜紧急声明澄清。
随着人民币对美元汇率逼近“7”这一重要心理关口、外汇储备也极可能在短期内跌破3万亿美元“红线”，为“人无贬基”站台真的需要勇气。
而要看懂人民币的走势，我们需要一个高(nao)瞻(dong)远(da)瞩(kai)的视角。投行并购老司机 @椒图炼丹炉对人民币汇率的分析让人拍案叫绝：
都知道，主要经济体如果实施一致性竞争贬值是零和博弈，所有人都无法从中获益。
但如果大家达成默契，阶段性的允许个别经济体货币贬值、舒缓其压力，并且大家轮流接力，也许就都能活下去。
中美欧日就像光明顶上携手抗击天下各大门派的明教四大法王，暂时放弃了平素的激烈争斗，彼此背靠背互相支援抗敌。
但四法王体力逐渐不支，都想停下来休息一会儿，补充一些九花玉露丸(货币贬值)——但不能所有人都停下来吃，只能一次一个人吃，吃完后再换另一人吃。
2009-2011年，白眉鹰王(美)因为年纪大，第一个吃，美元大幅贬值;2012-2013年，青翼蝠王(日)轻功强内力弱的毛病显现出来，第二个吃，日元从80贬到125;2014-2015上半年，金毛狮王(欧)不行了，第三个吃，欧元兑美元快跌到平价。
大家虽然苦苦支撑，但通过轮休补药，勉强看见了复苏的一丝曙光。
2015年下半年开始，紫衫龙王觉得有点顶不住了，也想吃九花玉露丸进补，三法王突然起了坏心眼，说你贸易顺差最大，紫白金青四大法王里你排第一，你要去休息补药了我们剩下人都抵挡不住，全得完。鹰王特朗普吵吵得最起劲，还动不动威胁要在身后拍龙王一掌。
龙王没办法，只能说我还接着打，但我抽空少嗑几粒，适当补充一下，勉强贬了个14%。但后来发觉，九花玉露丸原来跟藿香正气丸一样，嗑几粒根本没用，得大把大把嗑才见效，但三法王都不让，龙王只能调动真气拼死扛着。
联手抗敌却不让补药，龙王还想起年轻时鹰王曾蛮横阻止自己和湾湾婚事的旧恨，心里不由得火冒三丈。为了生存下去，龙王决定采取盯死鹰王的战术，在节约体力方面多想办法，最后琢磨出如下几套应对方案：
(1)鹰王发狠攻敌时，自己赶紧变虚招，降低消耗，但表面上装着和狮王蝠王的出力幅度保持一致——美元走强时，人民币对美元中间价顺势下调，但控制贬值幅度使得相对一篮子货币(CFETS指数)稳定。
(2)鹰王体力不支出掌迟缓时，自己虽然也顶上、挺身而出攻敌，但主要让狮王蝠王发狠，始终保持比他们锋头弱——美元走弱，人民币对美元中间价上调，但控制升值幅度使得相对一篮子货币(CFETS指数)贬值。
(3)鹰王不急不躁，稳扎稳打时;龙王自己也稳扎稳打，保持跟鹰王同样用力，整个战局就看狮王蝠王的发挥——美元平稳时，人民币兑美元汇率中间价基本稳定，对一篮子货币随机游走，取决于CFETS指数其他篮子货币的表现。
后来，紫衫龙王得意的点评自己这套策略为“既能向前推动汇改，又不会引起太多负面溢出效应”。江湖上至此流传着不也能活蹦乱跳的传说……
文章内容仅供参考，不构成投资建议。投资有风险，投资者据此操作，风险自担，转载请注明出处!
听到大家的赞美，他心里美滋滋的!?????
We?heard?the?praise,?he?was?flattered!……我带你了解更多有趣的内容，接下来要给大家提供的是： 英语 作文 一封信，希望你认真看完，会对你有帮助的!
英语作文一封信1
There was once an old goat that was very, very old; he could barely walk, and was always sleepy during important emergencies. One day the goat went off to eat grass among the fields.
During the time, the goat did not realize that the goat pack had gone straight in front of him. He had no choice but to continue straight on. As soon as he passed the hill, he found the goat pack had already crossed three other mountains… The old goat was tired of climbing and walking, so he decided to rest. After a short break, he was sure that the goat pack had already wiped him away far back behind.
The goat decided to find a place to be made a shelter for him to sleep tonight. Along the way, the old goat walked along; he trembled along the way. At last, he found a big round cave for him to sleep in, so that he could rest his energy and continue his journey…
The old goat didn’t even realize that this was home to the lion, king of all animals. As soon as he approached the mouth of the cave, the lion smelled the goat out with his nose. The lion shouted, “Who are you that dare come to my house? I am going to destroy you, and eat you up for breakfast!!!!” the old goat was frightened out of his wits, he wanted to run, but knew that he was not fast enough. He closed his mouth and held his breathe, and pretended not to be frightened or afraid.
He walked inside the cave and saw the terrifying lion king. The lion never saw this kind of thing before, he was frightened now; and asked, “Why are you here? And who are you? And…” Before he could even finish his speech, the g oat answered; “I am the goat empress, and I have come to see you…” “See me?” asked the lion, “Yes,” replied the goat ‘empress’; “I can live no much longer, and even walking; but, before I die, I want to eat: 100 elephants, 75 wild oxen, 63 wild pigs, and 25 lions. Now I had already had: Elephants, wild oxen, and wild pigs; I am looking for a lion to eat now!” the lion was so frightened.
“You know what empress, I am too dirty, and I should probably wash up before you…You know, Gulp! Eat me up!” as he said those words, he backed up towards the mouth of the cave, and rushed out immediately with his back legs between his jaws…
Along the way, he bumped into a jackal, the jackal asked; “Hey, I am the cranky jackal dear king; and what has gotten you in such a fright?” the lion took a breath and answered, “There was a goat ‘empress’ in my cave that wants to eat me!” “The goat empress? I never heard of such a thing!”
The lion replied, “Then come with me to the cave… Gulp!”
And so the lion led the jackal to his cave, the goat ‘empress’ saw them coming, and answered; “Jackal, what do you think you’re doing? I asked you to bring me 25 lions, but you just brought me one! I’m going to eat you both up for breakfast!” the lion trembled and shouted at the jackal, “Jackal, you tricked me into this trap?! How dare!”
At these words the jackal ran away, and the lion ran to a place far, far away…
英语作文一封信2
Once upon a time in a kingdom far away, there was an India princess called Lily; she lived with her father in a desert, where the camel was always good and healthy… One day Lily went off through the woods to find some food to eat up. One or two times she would stop to admire the beautiful views, and try to aim at those who bother her; when she returned, she dragged a big deer for supper… it was also Dum for her to hit a very poor deer… Sometimes her father would say, “Well done!”
After supper, Lily begged her father to let her go and have an adventure in the woods. Her father agreed, and Lily got her bow and arrow, ready to have an adventure. Along the way, she met a very lovely prince, and fell in love with him at once, but how could she express her love to him?
She thought and thought about it along the way home. Until she figured out that she had lost her way. She had decided to move along and try to find her way back home, at last she found a big and tall tree that had branches that form a room; just like a platform… She cut off some branches that made a small floor; then she made the furniture, of sticks and wood and mud. In the evening, she rested on the platform, and waited until the sun rise… At sun rise, Lily woke up, she got her bow and arrow, ready to find home. But just as she was about to get down from her platform, a crocodile blocked her way, she sat there looking frightened.
At last some back men rode horses came to this place, they quietly without any word, kicked the crocodile down; and then killed him. Lily finally got down from the tree or platform, and went with the black men.
At last they arrived at the black men hiding place, and they fed her with some delicious meals; during the great time that Lily was having some men with white horses galloped toward Lily; she was still having delicious meals when bomb! Lily was captured in a cage.
Lily was very worried, she yelled out for help! Finally the black men came, and found the cage where Lily was in.
They hurried up, and used their stick and opened the cage. The white men came, and were ready to battle; the black men made a signal to let Lily get out of here. Lily got out and scrambled. When the black men returned, they found Lily clasped on the ground… They carried Lily on their horses to their hiding spots, and fed her some water and some meals.
At last Lily woke up, and saw the black men; she went to hug them and say thanks for saving her. The next day the black men took Lily to find her parents. Lily asked for a bowl of porridge as a meal, and set off on their black horse. Along the way, they found a camp place; it was where Lily’s father lived! Lily jumped off the black horse, and ran to her father and hugged him; they were all very, very happy.
When the king saw the black men, he was very angry. But Lily said to him; “Father, these are the men that saved me from the white men that had captured me, they are amazing!” the king thought about this for a moment, and so decided to let the black men go in peace.
At last Lily was at home, his father was so very glad to see her. During their happiness together, the black men came back and prepared a special feast for everyone to enjoy. The music began to blow, and they started to dance up and down and twirling about in the air…
They ate their meals, and drank some porridge, and lived pretty happy. One day when the black men were about to leave, the king asked; “Is there something that you would like me to give to you?” “Dear king,” replied one of the black men, “I would love you to grant me a very happy wish your honor, and that is to let all the poor people survive from the dangerous stuff…” the black men wish was at once granted, and all that was left was the action and the build.
Before the only time the king knew, that the black men was killed, he killed himself, with always a smile on his face…
Lily on the other hand, was very sad about the wish; but she too, had always a smile…
英语作文一封信3
THE ONLY MAGICAL THING----Map There was only one thing in the world that wanted to play, and that guy’s name was Jack. He wanted to be a pirate one day, and found treasure in pirate islands… He had a conversation with his mother one day for certain. It was about being a pirate one day for once in his lifetime…
“Mom, I want to be a pirate one day, and find treasures in buried islands and…” “Whoa! Hold there son, what do you mean by, you what to be a pirate?” asked his mother, “Well it is that I just want to hunt for treasure instead of just being a regular boy like usual…”
His mother laughed so very hard, “Then why don’t you ask the sorcerer of the wicked castle?” his mother suddenly added, “What do you mean of: Wicked?” “Well,” replied her mother, “It all happened in…” “Wait!” shouted Jack, “There is no time for you to explain the whole thing, if you could show me this ‘Wicked castle’ then I could be a pirate sooner or later.
And so his mother showed him a riddle clue, which had many words written on it, “All you have to do is answer the riddles and you will arrive at your destination;” so Jack took the map, and head out for the wicked castle immediately, “Now let us see, two choices to make; which one is it that I need to take?” then he suddenly felt a little twinkle among his eyes, he looked at the map; “That’s it!” he opened the map and placed it upon him. “Now, I just need to figure this one out.”
He read it out loud, “Choose the path that has round hard things the most…” then he thought about it, he looked at each side; first, he checked the left; “There is nothing very hard on this side, or even round!” the he checked the other side, known as the right; “Look, there is a pile of rocks here, they are very hard; and round, and there are plenty of them!”
He walked to the right, and then he went straight on. At last he came to a big castle, it has many traps; and so Jack decided to use the map and find clues so that he won’t get lost…
He first came to the front door, and then he opened the map, read the riddle; “Watch out for the monster, with two pairs of wings; and come in the spring, it is giant, I warn you…” then he answered, “The only flying thing that has two pairs of wings is a dragon fly!” when he said “Dragonfly” d-r-a-g-o-n-f-l-y; a giant dragonfly flew past his eyes!
“Whoa!” shouted Jack, he then read the riddle, “look around you; use the one, as sharp as a knife;” Jack looked around himself, then he found a big sharp needle; it was huge! He used all his might and picked it up, and then he sprang it to the monster. The monster fell down immediately, as if dead.
Then Jack had beaten the giant ‘Dragonfly’d-r-a-g-o-n-f-l-y, he was ready to see the sorcerer. He was casting a spell when Jack came in, he interrupted him; and so the sorcerer shouted, “What are you doing stranger?” he asked, “Can you make me a pirate?” “What! Nobody has ever done that spell before; never!”
And so Jack had to keep on being a normal boy, he was satisfied sometimes, but also was glad that he didn’t turn into a pirate. “The map is ‘the only magical thing’ in this world…
英语作文一封信4
During the years of suffering, a super hero called Maze was facing the war of the Americans. One day he was planning a vacation, that was going to be amazing; when a big giant octopus attacked the whole city…
He had no choice but to stop his vacation, and to stop the octopus. He was transforming into a big octopus, and ready to battle Maze. Maze was ready; he got his sword and shield ready for battle. When he came, everybody cheered for him; the octopus was not very happy…
He used his legs and arms and kicked Maze right up into the air. Maze said to the people; “I have a plan, but I’ll need you guys to help me with it;” everybody agreed to help Maze, and so they all gathered around to listen to Maze’s plan. He said to the people, “I need a person, to help and pull a string; that way, when the giant octopus reached me, you guys just pull the string, and it will trip; then I will need a guy that is good at tying knots, that is when the giant octopus trips, that guy will tie his up and give it to me; then rest of the problems I will deal with it…”
Everybody agreed to his magnificent plan, and so they got to work. First Maze went to get a very long string, and gave it to two people that were very good at strength to pull it, instead of pulling it let us make it that Maze’s plan was not at length that good, for the octopus knew all about his plan; and so could very easily pass the test…
When they failed, Maze thought about this problem; they all knew that the octopus it always listening to their plans. Now what? Well since Maze could tell the other people his plan, he had decided to show them his plan. He drew it on a piece of white paper, and showed it to the people, he made some moves of how it was done; they all understood, but the giant octopus didn’t. His plan was the same, but the giant octopus didn’t know it.
He decided to be careful, but he couldn’t, because the string was invisible; instead of the string part, Maze changed it into plastic paper; that way the giant octopus couldn’t see what they were up to; this plan was good, but let us see how it ends.
Then two men were pulling the plastic, the plastic paper broke; and so maybe Maze didn’t think it all the way through. He changed a magnificent plan: First of all, some people distract the giant octopus; and then Maze tied his legs and arms; and threw him into the ocean, where he was gone and 100 percent drowned with his legs and arms tied behind his back.
And so Maze saved the day once again, and when his mom and dad returned home; they were very proud of him. But maze was still sad, his mom and dad asked; “What is the matter Maze?” “Well, I did save the day Hooray! But I still didn’t get a chance of relaxing like little children, they were like holidays!” then his mother and father decided to hold him a holiday celebration, and lived happily ever after.
The octopus did return, and it was all to his mom the scientist. Maze did defeat him again and again; until the octopus was tired, he knew that he was not the guy to beat Maze, so he changed his mind and left the city and gave lived to Maze’s fans in peace.
The end…
英语作文一封信5
There was once a little girl named Anna, that wanted to have magic in this world; but she knew that her mother would just only laugh at her if she had told her. And so she decided to go on the adventure on her own.
She got everything that she needed to complete her mission, and then started off without a word to say. She headed out to the woods, and found a little tree house nearby; she climbed up there with a ladder, and found lots of books and shelves there. She found a book about knights, and turned to a page of pictures of knights long ago; and how they battle enemies such as that. Anna wished so much that she could go there.
After that she fell asleep, and then she opened her eyes, and found her on the ground; as if she were asleep… She thought it very weird, that she was here; at first she was at the tree house, then she was at the grass plot.
She got up, and walked through looking for an exit, then she found the book that she was reading before; she knew that she must have gone into the knight’s story because of her wish. She picked up the book, and looked around; The book suddenly moved like magic, then, she found the books end; there were some words written all over it.
She read in out loud, “If you want to escape this land you are in, all you have to do is try and face all the knights, there are four of them; good luck!” then she began searching for knights, but what she did before that was to think about how to defeat them… She walked along the road, and finally saw a big tree with a sharp branch; she had an idea of how she could face the knights; she broke down the branch, and kept on searching. She was not quite ready for beating them, for she just needed some other things in order to defeats them… She kept on her journey, and suddenly realized a big rock; she was tired and so lay on it. Then a crack came on her back, and the rock got up. Anna was astonished, she stood up and said, “Who are you?” then the rock replied. “I am the alive rock and I suppose you are Anna;” “How did you know my name?”
The rock took a breath and replied, “Because I heard your voice ever since, I know you are looking for some new weapons to defeat knights…” “I most certainly am alive rock,” and she bowed down. The rock then said, “I suppose I can be of much use to you, I am going to come with you; and see whether there are dangers…”
And so Anna and the alive rock moved along, suddenly they came to a big giant tree; the tree said slowly, “Who are you that dare come to my place?” “Ah!” shouted Anna, “Alive tree!” “How did you guess my name?” asked the talking tree; “Because-because your, a-liv-e!” “Yep! And that’s my neighbor;” answered alive rock. Anna then said; “OH, well I suppose you can be a lot of use to me when I defeat knights!”
“Knight? Defeat? Ha! That is already the easiest sport I could think of! I had defeated knights for like 2089 times!” “What?!” asked Anna rather surprised, then she gulped and answered; “Then you must come with me!” answered Anna proudly. And so the three of them marched down, until they came was a big knife; the knife turned around and said, “Who are you little girl?” “Ah!” shouted Anna again, “That’s our neighbor too!” replied alive tree and alive rock together.
Anna then said, “Oh, then you must come with me; I have to defeat knights!” “Oh,” answered the knife, “Then I suppose I could be a lot of use to you, now all we are missing in the alive shield…” He didn’t even finish until, “What?!” shouted Anna, “Don’t shout Anna!” replied alive tree, “This isn’t fake, it is true; follow knife!”
Then knife led the group to where the big shield was, he was brushing his face when they arrived, “Oh, hello everybody; and hello little girl named Anna!” “How did you all know my name?” “No time for that!” shouted alive rock, “We have knights to defeat!” “And you must come with us alive shield!” “No problem!” shouted he, and then the group marched off.
They at last reached the knights hiding spot, the four knights answered; “We shall destroy you!” speaking of which, the knights charged toward Anna’s group; “Attack!” shouted Anna. Alive tree, alive rock, alive knife and mostly alive shield charged toward the knights. Seeing such a fright, the knights said, “You know what; maybe today is not the day boys…
Then the knights were destroyed by the alive group team.
Suddenly a flash came upon Anna, and she vanished out of sight; “Where did she go?” asked the group. Then she shook their heads, and went back to their homes…
And for Anna, she got back home; and she at last knew that magic is really magic…
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Researchers in Iran have discovered a fungus that can metabolise and absorb sulfur from crude oil and so reduce one of the major sources of air pollution when petroleum products are burned. The fungus is more effective than any chemical engineering solution used in conventional oil refineries. Sarah Torkamani, Jalal Shayegan, Soheila Yaghmaei, and Iran Alemzadeh of the Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, point out that existing processes for refining so-called “heavy,” or high-sulfur, crude oil convert sulfur to hydrogen sulfide gas at high temperatures and pressures. The main aim is to reduce the noxious sulfur-containing gases released by burning oil fuels. These are often acidic and can cause health problems in some people, damage the urban environment and lead to acid rain, which affects trees, plants, and lakes, for instance. Necessary emission standards on fossil fuels could be more easily met with the use of such a biotech cleanup option, the researchers say. "Oil supplies 38% of the worldwide energy, and as the light oil is limited and meanwhile the energy demand is increasing, it is a must to use heavy crude oil and therefore desulfurize it to meet environmental standards," the team says. "It is not feasible to desulfurize all the sulfur-containing compounds in heavy crude oil using existing methods, such as hydro-desulfurization," they add. Scientists have known for a long time that the biochemistry of certain microbes is suited to removing sulfur from oil. However, the development of a biodesulfurization method using such microbes to treat heavy crude oil has not been found to be viable until now. Indeed, desulfurization with a bacterial agent requires the oil to be heated to 45 Celsius to activate the process, which uses a lot of energy. In the new study, Torkamani and colleagues explain how they isolated and tested the first microbial fungus, known as Stachybotrys species WS4, which can remove sulfur from heavy crude oil. The fungus is capable of removing 65 to 76% of the sulfur content from crude samples at two different oil fields, the Soroush and the Kuhemond oil fields, where initial sulfur content is 5 and by weight, respectively. The team has studied the impact of several variables on heavy crude oil biodesulfurization, such as initial pH of the medium, the water to oil ratio, and the number of fungal spores added to the sample. The researchers point out that the process works without the need for energy-hogging high temperatures or pressures, requiring heat just above room temperature, at 30 Celsius, which is presumably readily accessible to oil refineries in the Middle East much of the time. The work was carried out as a project initiated by the Petroleum Engineering Development Company (PEDEC), a subsidiary of the National Iranian Oil Company.
行会 高喊看坑汉口
Today, with the development of the technology and the diversity of the mass media, advertising has influenced us pervasively in our daily life. However, whatever the promotive strategies advertising takes, language is the main carrier of message all along, as The Language of Advertising, by Vestergaard & Schroder, says, “Advertising takes many forms, but in most of them language is of crucial importance.” Advertising language is a of immediate impact and rapid persuasion. The point of an advertisement is to persuade you of the merits of a particular product or service, in order that you will take out some of your money. Advertising Information Advertising information is the principal contents an advertisement wants to disseminate. Advertising is a serious of planning action, so the information of advertising should be aimed at the certain target market and consumers, and should avoid aimlessness. The dissemination of information should be accurate, definite, recognizable and moderate in length. An effective advertisement involves not only “what to say”, but also ‘how to say”. Advertising Media Media are the means of the dissemination of advertising, including newspaper, magazine, broadcast, TV program, and mail. The newspaper, magazine, broadcast and TV are called the four main media of advertising. Moreover, any kind of objects or tools can be a medium for the advertisement, such as airplane, train, bus, building, neon light, movie, package, exhibition, and etc. Different kinds of media have different features, disseminating area, target audience and . Nonpersonal Advertising is not aimed at any individual, or by any individual. It’s a nonpersonal transmission of information aiming at the public or a certain group of people. Because of the nonpersonal features of advertising, the dissemination and operation of it should be restricted by the law of a country, the moral standards, psychology, zoology, and environment protection. The information, methods, media, and other components of advertising should abide by the advertising laws, policies and rules, and should be under the of the public. All of these components are mutual features and essential elements of every advertisement. The wide use of advertising has created a special of English—advertising English. Its unique features, simple language and immense attraction separate it from other kind of language. In the development of advertising English, this kind of language has formed its own features in several aspects. English Morphology in Advertising As a means to disseminate information, advertising English must be , vivid, visual, emotional and attractive. Therefore, morphology in advertising is quite different from common English. The function of advertising is to provide information, attract consumer, exploit market, and promise the quality. Therefore, advertisement must pay attention to its impelling language, and the first step is to use popular and oral language to make it easy to understand and memorize. For example: “I couldn’t believe it, until I tried it!” “I’m impressed! I’m really impressed!” “You’ve gotta try it!” “I love it!” This is an advertisement of a microwave oven. The words in it are very simple and oral. It uses the slang “gotta”, which means “got to” in American English, to give an impression that this advertisement comes from the real life. Misspelling and Coinage In some of advertisements, the advertising copywriter misspells some words on purpose, or adds some suffix or prefix to the common words. Although the new words still keep the original meanings, they are quite different from the original words in spelling, which will make the advertisement more vivid, interesting and attractive. . We know eggsactly How to sell eggs. In this advertisement, “eggsactly” is the variation of “exactly”, and echo the word “eggs” at the end of the sentence. The Orangemostest Drink in the world. In this drink advertisement, the word “orangemostest” actually is “orange+most+est”. It uses this word to the high quality and purity of the drink. The coinage and misspelling are also representing in some phrases, such as: First of all, because now Yoplait is thicker. Second of all, because it’s creamier. Third of all, because it’s still 100% natural and really very good for you. Fourth of all, because to me Yoplait tastes better than all the other Yoyurts. And fifth of all, because…well, just because In this advertisement, the copywriter imitate the phrase “first of all” to create “second of all, third of all, fourth of all…”, which will inspire consumers’ imagination. In addition, some prefixes or suffixes like “super-”, “ex-”, “-er”, “-est” …etc, are often used to stress the high quality of the product. Loanwords The most frequently used loanwords are French and Spanish. For example: Order it in bottles or in cans. Perrier…with added je ne sais quoi. The meaning of “je ne sais quoi” is “I don’t know what”. The purpose to use this simple French is to show the French flavor of this drink. The loanwords in some advertisement are good methods to the exoticism of the products. (4). Contraction Because the advertisement fees are so high that it’s essential to use some contraction to cut short the length, and reduce the cost. To Let or For Sale Furnished Edinburgh Court, 426 Argyly st, 2nd floor, 1,630 sqft4 bedrooms with dining and living room, prive . Sale at 130,000. Rent 1,400. Tel, 38954 office time or 823748. This is an advertisement to rent or sell a . There are many contractions, such as: st=street, sq=square, ft=foot, Tel=telephone. Use of verbs Although the ultimate purpose of advertising is to persuade consumers to buy its products, advertisements seldom use the word “buy” in it. Statistics show only two out of ten advertisements use the verb “buy” directly. On one hand, the advertisers try their best to promote their product; on the other hand, they don’t want to give the consumers a feeling of spending their money. Therefore, the choice of verbs is very careful in advertising. The most frequently used 20 verbs and phrasal verbs are: Try, ask, get, take, let, send for, use, call, make, , hurry, see, give, come, remember, , serve, introduce, choose, and look for. Examples: Getting places in the business world is easier if your banker is there to meet you. --Security Pacific Asian Bank. We can give you a better view of investment opportunities from both sides of the Pacific. --City Bank. Use of Adjectives The most frequently used are: 2. crisp 3. good/better/best 4. fine 5. free 6. big 7. fresh 8. great 9. delicious 10. real 11. full, sure 12. easy, bright 13. clean 14. extra, safe 16. rich Use of Compound words There are lots of compound words in advertisement mainly because the element of compound words could be any part of speech, and has few limits in grammar and word order. There are many ways to write a headline, and 5 types often appear in written advertisement: (1). Straightforward headlines This kind of headlines usually uses interrogative sentences and imperative sentences to arouse readers’ interest. Ever wander why most guys in pants ads are standing up? Discover the wonder of your first Dash wash! (2). News headlines Pursuing new things is the nature of human beings. People are always interested in finding some new products or improvement of old products. Therefore, news headlines could attract consumers’ attention better. Introducing Renunt Freshell, The New wave in Air Fresheners. (3). Information headlines Example: Datsun saves about a of gasoline a day. (4). Emotional headlines Example: Soft shoes for hard world. (5). Curiosity headlines Example: Saturday night On .
分散风险获得规模经济论文编者按：本文主要从企业核心竞争力；企业多元化战略；实现核心竞争力与多元化战略之间的良性互动进行论述。其中，主要包括：核心竞争力最早是美国经济学家普哈拉德和哈默于1990年在《哈佛商业评论》上提出的、核心竞争力是最富有战略价值的、核心竞争力是企业在发展过程中长期培育和沉淀而形成的、多元化战略日益成为现代企业的一种发展趋势、分散风险，某一个业务单元发生亏损，可以由其他业务单元来弥补、利用核心竞争力推进多元化战略、通过多元化战略提高和增强核心竞争力、企业培育核心竞争力的途径主要有传统途径和现代途径两种等，具体请详见。
分析产业经济学在西方的起源与发展——毕业论文--------------------------------------------------------------------------------产业经济学（Industrial Economics）是国际公认的一门应用性经济学学科，是微观经济学深化和发展的结果，是国外经济学专业的核心课程之一，也是近些年来经济学最活跃、最激动人心、取得成果最丰厚的领域之一。1996年，我国对学科专业门类作了调整，“产业经济学”作为“经济学”大类中“应用经济学”这个一级学科之下的二级学科第一次位列其中，在学科设置上与国际惯例实现了初步的接轨。但是，西方的产业经济学与国内的产业经济学相比，无论在研究对象、研究方法、主要内容，还是在理论基础、理论体系上都存在很大差异。那么，西方产业经济学到底是研究什么的，它的发展轨迹怎样，主要内容有哪些？一、西方产业经济学的学科范围及地位在西方，产业经济学又称产业组织学或产业组织理论（Industrial Organization），是战后迅速发展起来的应用性经济学科。其主要代表人物之一的美国著名经济学家斯蒂格勒（G. Stigler）1982年荣获诺贝尔经济学奖。起初，它只是从供给角度研究经济究竟是如何运行的，并不被认为是一门独立的经济学科（斯蒂格勒，1968）；70年代后才逐渐完善，当今已成为国际公认的相对独立的应用性经济学科。西方产业经济学中“产业”的含义是什么？一般认为，“产业”指的是生产具有一定替代关系的同一类商品的生产者的集合，“产业”与“市场”是同意语。因为只有为同一市场生产同类产品的企业才能构成同一个产业，而同一产业内的各个企业都是在同一市场上相互博弈、展开竞争并追求其最大化利润目标的。当然，这里的市场指的是狭义的局部市场，而不是广义的一般市场。产业经济学到底是研究什么的呢？在西方，可以说是众说纷纭。泰勒尔（1988）说，“我想避免给这一学科下一个精确的定义，因为它的边界并不明确。产业经济学的确始于厂商结构和行为的研究，……但是，产业经济学的内容比经营战略更丰富”，“研究产业组织就是研究市场运行”。瑞典皇家科学院在斯蒂格勒获诺奖的公告中则指出，“斯蒂格勒为市场运行的研究和产业结构的分析做出了重大贡献，他的成就使他成为市场和产业结构应用研究领域（产业组织）的学术带头人”。阿宁德亚·森（Anindya Sen，1996）在牛津大学出版的《产业组织学论文集》的导言中认为，“产业组织学的定义可以较宽，包括企业理论、规制、反垄断政策、合同理论以及组织理论的某些内容”。可见，产业经济学的学科范围没有统一的界定，事实上也难以统一定义。一般认为，这门学科是以市场（或产业）这一层次为研究对象，从同一市场中各厂商的关系这一角度来分析厂商行为及其后果的（潘振民，1996）。我觉得，简单地说，产业经济学是以“市场与企业”为研究对象的，是从市场角度研究企业行为，或者说从企业角度研究市场结构。围绕产业经济学发展的主线无非有两条：一是产业内部各企业之间的市场关系，一是单个企业内部的结构与协调。这一点，在主流经济学界意见基本上是一致的。产业经济学是从微观经济学中分化发展出来的一门相对独立的经济学科，微观经济学是产业经济学的理论基础。两相比较，微观经济学相对侧重基本经济理论，而产业经济学则侧重实际应用。不过，产业经济学虽然是一门实用性很强的经济学科，但在近年来的发展过程中，它又有了自己的理论和方法，成为一门相当理论化的学科（泰勒尔，1988）。在西方，产业经济学的发展不仅使自己的理论体系日臻完善，而且还影响了其他经济学科的产生和发展（于立等，2000）。例如，规制经济学（regulation economics）就是在产业经济学的基础上发展起来的；一些应用性微观经济学科如劳动经济学、国际贸易学、比较经济体制、发展经济学等从产业经济学的发展中受益不少；与产业经济学联系较多的工商管理学科还有公司治理结构、市场营销学、企业战略、国际企业管理以及公司理财学等；近年来，产业经济学的发展甚至对宏观经济学的研究也产生了一定程度的影响。二、西方产业经济学的发展轨迹如果追根溯源，那么，产业经济学的源头是比较久远的，一直可以追索到马歇尔的经济学说，乃至亚当·斯密的有关劳动分工理论和市场机制的论述（洪银兴，1998）。但是，一般认为，马歇尔开始的新古典经济学说是产业经济学的理论源头。20年代斯拉法（）、张伯伦(Chamberlin)、琼·罗宾逊（）等提出的“垄断竞争理论”，为以后产业经济学家的研究提供了分析的基础，并为产业组织理论向市场结构方向发展起了直接的推动作用，他们被推为产业组织理论的先驱者。此后，克拉克（，1940）提出的“有效竞争理论”，对产业经济学的产生起了较大的推动作用。尽管如此，当时产业经济学还处于萌芽状态，真正意义上的产业经济学并未产生。因此，一般论述产业经济学发展历史的论著很少提到以上内容，这是可以理解的。比较一致的看法是，产业经济学源于美国，作为一种理论体系产生于30年代，至今只有大约70年的历史。如果以1970年为界，西方产业经济学的发展历程大体上可以划分为两大阶段，或者说出现了两次高潮。第一阶段：1930~1970年。以哈佛大学的经济学教授梅森（）和贝恩（）为主要代表，形成了著名的“市场结构(structure)——市场行为(conduct)——市场绩效(performance)”范式，简称SCP范式。SCP范式源于梅森和30年代其他学者的研究成果，特别是大量吸纳了张伯伦的学术观点。但是明确形成SCP范式体系的却要归功于梅森的学生贝恩在理论方面的创造性工作。30年代，张伯伦和梅森首先在哈佛大学开设了产业组织课程。30年代后期，哈佛大学形成了产业组织研究小组，并运用案例研究的方法考察了美国主要行业的市场结构情况，并于1939年出版了美国主要产业在1935年的市场集中度资料。40~60年代，哈佛大学成为产业经济学研究的中心，其中，贝恩成为这方面的学术权威。这一时期的代表作是1959年贝恩出版的《产业组织论》，它首先提出了“结构——绩效”的范式，是第一本系统论述产业经济学的著作，标志着产业经济学理论体系的基本形成，在随后的20多年间一直被国外大学作为产业经济学的教科书。谢勒（Schever）在1970年出版了《产业市场结构和市场绩效》一书，提出了完整的“结构——行为——绩效”范式，这也是SCP范式发展的第二阶段。总之，这一时期研究的基本脉络是运用案例研究和计量分析来建立和验证SCP范式即“结构——行为——绩效”之间的内在逻辑关系。这一阶段产业经济学的主要研究成果集中在1958年由海弗里鲍尔（）和斯托金（）主编的《产业组织与公共政策论文选》中。哈佛学派SCP范式的形成标志着产业组织理论体系的初步成熟，从这一阶段起，产业经济学就已逐步成为一门相对独立的经济学科，哈佛学派的产业组织理论理所当然地成为产业经济学的主流学派被人们广泛接受，影响了整个一代的经济学家和决策者。当然，这一时期，在哈佛学派占据主导地位的同时，也孕育和存在着其他的产业经济学流派，只是影响有限而已。例如，同在美国的经济学家斯蒂格勒1964年所著的《寡头垄断理论》就是从理论到实际与SCP范式不同的另一种研究范式的典范；而且在英国和欧洲大陆，其他很有特色的产业经济学流派也很活跃（卡布尔，1994）。第二阶段：1970年至今。哈佛学派的主流产业经济学理论创立以来，一方面不断获得发展和完善，另一方面也不断受到批评和挑战，这样，产业经济学的发展就分化成了两条主线：一条是代表主流学派、沿着SCP范式继续前进的“新产业组织学”；一条是以芝加哥学派为首的其他非主流产业组织理论的崛起。前者的代表人物有考林（Cowling）、沃特森（Waterson）、鲍莫尔(Baumol)等人；后者以斯蒂格勒、德姆塞茨(Demsetz)、布罗兹恩（）组成的芝加哥学派为代表。除此之外，还有重要的“后SCP”流派，引人注目的是以科斯（Coase）的交易费用理论为基础，由威廉姆森（Williamson）等人发展起来的“新制度经济学”。这一阶段中，产业经济学在各个方面都获得了较大的发展。发展的动因主要有：一是哈佛学派的SCP范式主要来自于经验研究、缺乏理论根基的缺陷不断暴露，需要完善；二是以前对产业组织研究不屑一顾的一流经济理论家70年代以后对此问题开始发生兴趣，不断加入研究的行列，弥补了产业组织研究理论性的不足；三是现代博弈论（game theory）方法的运用，成为策略性分析的标准工具，给这一领域提供了一种统一的方法论。这一时期的主要代表作是1988年泰勒尔出版的《产业组织理论》，它比传统的产业经济学更关注产业经济学理论的发展，例如企业理论、市场理论、企业间关系，以及合同与组织间关系等问题，是近十年来国外大学最权威的产业经济学教科书。1987年，《产业经济学杂志》以特刊的形式出了一期研究成果选集，汇集了80年代的主要成果。另外，1990年威廉姆森主编出版的《产业组织学论文选》，包含了产业经济学的经典文献、“新产业组织学”的代表作及芝加哥学派和“新制度经济学”的一些成果。值得一提的是，90年代以来产业经济学又进入一个快速发展时期。产业经济学家们重新转向依靠实证研究来解决分歧、填补漏洞和提炼思想，一批新的理论成果大量出现，使人们对市场上和企业中“会发生什么”有了无法比拟的认识。最重要的是，过去截然区分理论研究者与实证研究者的“长城”崩塌了，实证研究者越来越愿意吸纳和利用经济学理论和经济计量学方法的新成果，理论研究者也能更多地接触实际。卡布尔（）1994年主编出版的《产业经济学前沿问题》一书，全面综述了90年代以来产业经济学领域最新的发展动态和最前沿的研究成果。[NextPage]三、西方产业经济学的研究方法下面还有很多自己看吧
大哥，你至少也得给人点润笔费啊。让人打1000字，你才给那么点分，谁愿意回答。
名：褚天舒 班级：国贸101 经济是一个古老的话题，在西方可以追溯到亚里斯多德时代，在我国则可追溯到孔夫子那里。但如果以亚当·斯密1776年《国富论》的发表作为经济学诞生的标志，则经济学至今也不过只有200多年的历史。 什么是经济学呢？对这一概念的界定有各种各样的回答。如经济学探讨生产什么物品，如何生产这些物品和为谁生产这些物品。在名著《经济学》中萨缪尔森写道：“经济学研究社会如何使用稀缺资源来生产有价值的商品，并把它们在不同的人之间进行分配。”我在《管理经济学》一书中从公平与效率、生产与分配的角度出发，指出“经济学是研究如何有效配置经济资源和如何公平分配国民财富，以满足个人或社会目的的一门社会科学。”种种说法归结起来，总离不开这样一种思考，即经济学是使有限的资源被用于最合理的方面以便增加社会总的财富，使社会变得越来越富裕。 这种对经济学的理解，大致具有三方面的含义：第一，个人或社会的目的或欲望是永无止境的，而经济资源在绝对量上来说是有限的，稀缺的。由于人口的急剧增加，工农业的调整发展，污染的日益严重，森林和地下水等可再生的资源及矿产等不可再生资源日渐匮乏，甚至就连以往认为取之不尽、用之不竭的空气和江河之水也因污染而变得稀缺起来。第二，稀缺资源虽然有各种各样的用途，但一旦用于某一用途就不能再用于其他用途。因此，人们的各项经济活动都牵涉到选择问题。在这里，效率意味着一国经济应将它的生产和消费单位组织得使社会能够得到最大数量的所需要的物品和劳务，而且，在现行习惯、法律和制度的范围内，经济资源应得到最充分的利用。第三，在社会福利最大化的目标下，可通过“机会均等”或“结果均等”等制度来寻求公平分配方案，在市场经济条件下，通过机会均等的公正游戏规则，将实现由竞争带来的繁荣。 在短暂的200多年中，经济学按照科学的规范建立了自己的语言、文字的逻辑系统。一组初始概念，一套公理体系，精确的定义，严密的逻辑，以至如果没有受过专业训练，很少有人能够读懂经济学论文，特别是如果没有一定的数学功底，人们不要指望能看懂那些权威的经济学学术刊物上的论文。经济学已成为人类社会的“阳春白雪”而难以普撒寻常巷陌人家。 世纪之交，经济改革成为全球性流行思潮。而随着原计划经济国家大幅度向市场经济体制转轨，这一思潮日益成为广泛的社会行动。学习、研究、传授和应用经济学则成了这一社会行动的一个重要方面。经济学人认真钻研经济学、大胆实践经济学、不遗余力地传播经济学，为经济建设提供了大量经济管理人才，他们已经或正在成为跨世纪的市场经济主体。国内近百所大学开设经济管理专业，为市场经济建设提供了大量的人才。各级各类的研究机构对经济理论的潜心研究和深入探讨，极大地丰富了经济理论宝库，为我国经济建设指明了方向，提供了理论依据。