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城市规划与设计毕业论文

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城市规划与设计毕业论文

论文简单撒,,,如果你不会我倒是愿意帮你

从古至今的房屋建设和变迁,未来城市规划发展的趋势,你的发展目标OK了

城市规划可以写旧城改造、景观设计等等。开始也是苦于写不出,还是学长给的文方网,写的《多智能体城市规划空间决策模型及其应用研究》,用了很多国内外案例对比,相当专业的说,没几天就ok了

属于城建类文章,还很好弄

城市规划与设计专业毕业论文

当然是论文比较简单的,设计比较复杂,采纳

可以写某城市绿色规划研究

去万维,万方数据库,这是中国最大的数据,有成千上万的论文,你可以借鉴一下

你们的培养方向是什么?偏城乡规划?还是地理信息系统?还是其他?还有你学到了什么?发挥所学才好写!你的导师有什么课题没?参与一小部分,就有得写。看看中国知网,文献检索有学过吧?看看本专业前辈们都写些啥。ps:在下本专业毕业已四年,路过,叹气扼腕。

城市规划和城市设计论文

试论城市规划要点 引言城市规划的定义 城市规划是城市发展的战略、建设城市的纲领、管理城市的依据。如何打造一个城市的风貌、建设一个和谐、生动、合理的空间体系,是现在规划建设中十分热门的话题。城市规划必须注重个性特征,城市个性是一个城市的特色,是独特魅力之所在,在我国的城市化进程中,千城一面、似曾相识的城市越来越多,城市的个性特色已湮没在程式化的钢筋混凝土之中,失去了城市的特色和魅力。 城市个性化成为现代城市规划的一个重要内容和突出特点。打好“文化牌”,彰显文化特征是十分重要的课题。美国城市建筑学家刘易斯·芒福德说:“城市是文化的容器”。无论是历史文化名城罗马、威尼斯,还是现代国际大都市巴黎、纽约、芝加哥,座座堪称文化艺术宫殿、建筑博物馆,处处折射出城市的文化,走进这些城市,就仿佛走进了他们的历史。因此,在城市规划中必须处理好建设与继承的关系,在发展中传承历史文化。否则,城市一旦失去历史陈迹,犹如人失去鲜明的个性,得到的利益是暂时的,而遗憾却是永远的。 由于城市所处的空间地理位置、地形条件、气象条件和自然环境的不同,构成了不同的城市环境空间形态,提供了每个城市区别于其他城市的环境空间特性。城市规划的一个重要任务,就是要充分认识该城市的山、水、林和风景名胜等自然景观要素,发掘、保护、利用、开发、改造自然环境空间特色,在共性中找出个性,围绕个性建设特色城市。与此同时也要注重生态的和谐与持续发展的战略。 1.规划与人文精神 城市规划的人文精神是在1933年国际现代建筑会议第四次会议发表的《雅典宪章》中提出的,里面提出的城市功能分区原则影响了现代城市规划将近半个世纪。这种功能主义的原则,一方面向古典建筑学派提出挑战,使城市规划、建筑开始从古典的放射、圆形广场一类形式主义的桎梏中解放出来;另一方面功能主义又使城市规划、建筑逐渐陷入机械主义,它刻板地分区肢解了城市的有机结构,忽略了人与人之间的多方面联系,破坏了城市的地方特性,其结果是使城市形态单调、布局混乱、建筑雷同。尤其是功利主义的影响,城市空间因最大限度的商业性开发,破坏了城市生态环境,污水、废气、噪声、交通事故等给城市造成了巨大的伤害。因此城市在抛弃了人文精神的同时,便从“文明中最伟大的创造”变成了“文明中最大的破坏”,也给人类带来了生存危机。 20世纪60年代,重新关注城市的历史文脉、地域文化和人们的生活,城市规划中的人文理念开始复苏。与此同时,国际规划、建筑界人士开展了“可持续发展城市”的研究,并指出可持续发展的根本出发点是“为了城市人民”。这表明,城市人文精神将得到完全意义上的复兴与再生,人文因素将是21世纪城市文明的灵魂。 人文因素在中国的造城运动中是历史悠久的。明清时期的北京城就是中国城市运动中的代表作之一,彰显出皇权的气势和霸气。现代的城市建设也需要这种对人文精神的关注,在继承与发扬的道路上不断前进,为城市打造一种文化的底蕴。 建筑是人文精神的表现 1990年6月2日,国际建筑师协会第十七次大会发表了《蒙特利尔宣言》。其开头一行是:“建筑是人文的表现,它反映了一个社会的形象。”世界建筑史表明,人类的建筑活动不仅是一项物质生产活动,而且还是人类文化活动的重要内容。一座城市的魅力,多数是由于建筑艺术的魅力营造出来的。建筑是时代的象征。希腊雅典卫城建于公元前5世纪,其中有世界著名的保护神雅典娜帕提农神庙。卫城建筑群是雅典这个黄金般的古典时期的纪念碑,是雅典全面繁荣昌盛的见证。17世纪法国古典主义建筑主要是国家性的大型建筑,有些是专为荣耀路易十四或他的政权。这个时期建造的卢浮宫东立面、旺道姆广场、凡尔赛宫及园林,都体现了路易十四“伟大的时代”的“伟大的风格”。建筑语言常常是民族的语言,是凝固的民族精神,具有强大的感召力。著名美籍华人建筑大师贝聿铭设计的中国银行香港大楼,他以“中文的构思、英文的设计”,使这幢大楼渗透着深刻的人文含义:塔身,象征着雨后春笋;风格,体现了出于污泥而不染的荷花精神;楼的外表面,展示出宝石图案。有学者说,巴黎人民很大程度上是巴黎的建筑语言场教养、熏陶和塑造出来的。维也纳的建筑群及人文环境,培育了一批又一批的音乐大师;德国的一批具有艺术特色建筑群和浓郁人文精神的城市,产生了一批又一批的哲学家、科学家、音乐家。城市的建筑具有强大的人文精神功能,一座有个性和人文魅力建筑的城市能提示城市的广大居民,提升这座城市的文明素质,使这座城市有自信心、活力和发展的推动力。

从古至今的房屋建设和变迁,未来城市规划发展的趋势,你的发展目标OK了

属于城建类文章,还很好弄

城市是人类社会经济文化发展到一定阶段的产物。城市的出现以社会生产力除能满足人们基本生存需要外,尚有剩余产品为其基本条件。下面是由我整理的关于城市规划的论文范文,谢谢你的阅读。

浅论城市规划

摘要:在当今世界,城市是现代文明的集中体现,城市的发展对一个地区经济社会发展起着至关重要的推动作用。城市就像一块巨大的磁铁,吸引着各种生产要素的集聚。并在集聚效应和规模效应合作协作的催化作用下,各种经济迅速发展,从而带动了城市经济的迅猛发展。可以看出,做好城市的规划对发展经济有很大的帮助。

关键词:城市规划园林景观生态环境

Abstract: In today's world, the city is a concentrated expression of the modern civilization, the development of the city plays a vital role in promoting economic and social development in a region. The city is like a giant magnet, attracting a variety of factors in production agglomeration.

Keywords: urban planning; landscape; ecological environment

中图分类号:TU984 文献标识码:A文章编号:

城市是人类社会经济文化发展到一定阶段的产物。城市起源的原因和时间及其作用,学术界尚无定论。一般认为,城市的出现以社会生产力除能满足人们基本生存需要外,尚有剩余产品为其基本条件。城市是一定地域范围内的社会政治经济文化的中心。城市的形成是人类文明史上的一个飞跃。

一、城市规划的任务

我国城市规划的任务是:根据国家城市发展和建设方针、经济技术政策、国民经济和社会发展长远计划、区域规划,以及城市所在地区的自然条件、历史情况、现状特点和建设条件,布置城市体系;确定城市性质、规模和布局;统一规划、合理利用城市土地;综合部署城市经济、文化、基础设施等各项建设,保证城市有秩序地、协调地发展,使城市的发展建设获得良好的经济效益、社会效益和环境效益。

各国城市规划的共同和基本任务:通过空间发展的合理组织,满足社会经济发展和生态保护的需要。从城市的整体和长远利益出发合理有序地配置城市空间资源;通过空间资源配置,提高城市的运作效率,促进经济和社会的发展;确保城市的经济、社会与生态环境相协调,增强城市发展的可持续性;建立各种引导机制和控制规则,确保各项建设活动与城市发展目标相一致;通过信息提供,促进城市房地产市场的有序和健康的运作。

二、城市规划的发展

城市的发展是人类居住环境不断演变的过程,也是人类自觉和不自觉地对居住环境进行规划安排的过程。在中国陕西省临潼县城北的新石器时代聚落姜寨遗址,我们的先人就在村寨选址、土地利用、建筑布局和朝向安排、公共空间的开辟以及防御设施的营建等方面运用原始的技术条件,巧妙经营,建成了适合于当时社会结构的居住环境。可以认为,这是居住环境规划的萌芽。要实行规划区范围内全覆盖规划,统筹城乡发展,规划在保护自然生态环境基础上,重点突出中心城区职能、空间结构的调整与优化,合理确定和强化各组团产业依托,切实改善城镇生产、生活环境,推进村屯用地结构性调整。规划期内,逐步实现退宅还耕、退宅还林,促进农村人口向中心村、城镇集中;逐步缩小城镇与中心城区的差距,促进小城镇由数量型向质量性转变;逐步发展壮大组团,与中心城区形成联系紧密、资源互补的城市空间。最终实现城乡一体、协调共生的城市发展格局。突出社会公益设施建设,统筹经济与社会发展,规划健全各类公共服务设施,建立合理的级配体系;发挥公共投资导向性作用,促进规划区空间结构的形成和发展;进一步完善中心城区省会服务职能,加强现有城市中心的商业、文化娱乐等公共服务职能;努力促进以信息、金融等现代服务业为主的南部新中心的形成;结合市级文化、会展、体育等专项服务中心的设置,带动分区级中心形成与发展;以建设文化名城为目标,促进公益性文化事业繁荣兴旺,推动经营性文化产业蓬勃发展,全面提高社会文化生活质量。

三、城市发展中存在的问题

我们的城市发展还存在一些问题,比如盲目争建国际化大都市;盲目争建中心商务区;盲目追求高层建筑;盲目建设大量城市雕塑等,以上盲目的做法其实是城市在经济发展过程中不成熟的表现。明确城区发展方向,促进分区发展,为加快经济发展,促进城区、开发区和县域经济发展,在开展大量前期研究的基础上,提出了各城区、开发区的发展方向和功能定位。进一步调整能源消费结构,提高使用清洁能源的比重,发展集中供热,加强对汽车尾气的治理,综合整治大气污染。加快城市污水集中处理设施和城市垃圾无害化处理设施的建设。大力保护和改善生态环境,要保护好已有植被和各组团之间生态防护绿化带,进一步提高城市绿化覆盖率。要加强城市环境综合整治,改善城市生态环境。

四、城市景观规划的具体做法

城市景观规划是城市规划的一个重要环节,根据不同的地区,有不同的地理环境和人文历史。所以,城市景观规划要根据实际情况来设计和计划。要有选择,有目地,有侧重点的进行建设。具体的做法有以下几点:

1、确定景观的活跃元素

在分析了景观的基础上,寻找此景观的特色,最具历史意义的景观风貌,作为此景观的主角。这也是创造文明城市的根本所在。

2、划分特色景观区

要根据城市景观的特色和地理位置的功能进行建设,并渐渐的强化它的特色,从而继承和发扬城市的历史文化。

3、组织轴线景观

这要通过城市的主要干道来决定。

4、控制景观视廓

景观视廓就是为了使各个景观处于通透的状态,在各个方向都能欣赏到,而建立起来的景观走廊。

5、勾勒城市天际线

城市天际线是指自然景观和人工建筑物等形成的轮廓线。天际线轮廓应和景观视廓相配合,相协调。

五、城市景观要素

城市景观要素包括人工景观要素和自然景观要素。其中人工景观要素包括广场、建筑物、集贸市场、园林绿化、艺术小品、文化遗址。那么,自然景观有,大小山丘,石头、湖泊、海洋、古木名树。这些景观为文明城市做了重要的贡献,提高了人民的生活水平,陶冶了人们的情操。

六、经济发展与环境建设的关系

要处理好城市经济发展和环境建设的辩证关系。注意保护和改善城市生态环境,防止污染和其他公害,加强城市绿化建设和市容环境卫生建设,保护历史文化遗产、城市传统风貌、地方特色和自然景观;不能片面追求经济效益,以污染环境。破坏生态平衡、影响城市发展为代价,避免重复“先污染,后治理”的老路,而要使城市的经济发展与环境建设同步进行。人与环境是相互依存的有机整体,保持人与自然相互协调,既是当代人类的共同责任,也是城市规划工作的基本原则。

七、结语

城市的发展越来越快,人们的生活水平越来越高,城市规划成了社会的追求。城市研究任务艰巨而纷繁,这也说明它丰富的活力。城市永远在发展,城市问题也总是相伴而生,但人类必将更为自觉地运用广泛的知识与丰富的想象力、创造力,发展城市环境的规划、建设和管理。城市规划工作从最初社会经济发展的战略研究起,最终要落实到物质建设上,形成供人们生活和工作的形体环境。

城市规划是建筑和园林建设的前提,并为所需的空间准备条件,城市规划研究的进展也为建筑学和园林学的开拓提供了前所未有的广阔天地。规划师与建筑师、园林设计师的工作目标是一致的。随着人类社会的发展,这三学科的有机结合和协同创造,势必将形体环境的建设推向更高的境界。

参考文献:

俞孔坚《景观、文化、生态与感知》 北京科学出版社 1998

陈易《自然之韵――生态居住社区设计》 同济大学出版社 2003年

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城市规划设计流程论文

一、中西方古代和近现代城市规划的思想和理论体系随着社会经济的发展、城市的出现、人类居住环境的复杂化,产生了城市规划思想并得到不断发展。中国古代的城市规划学说散见于《考工记》①、《商君书》②、《管子》③、《墨子》④等典故之中。《考工记》确定了“都”、“王城”和“诸侯城”的三级城邑制度,用地的功能分区和道路系统等。中国古代城市规划强调战略思想和整体观念,强调城市与自然结合,强调严格的等级观念。战国时期,列国都城采用了大小城制度;西汉长安城将宫室与里坊结为一体;南北朝时代的洛阳城则加强了全面规划;宋开封城是按照五代的周世宗柴荣颁发的诏书,有规划地进行扩建的要例;北宋中叶,开封城已走向较为开放的街巷制体系,形成了中国封建社会后期的城市结构形态;清代在北京城远近郊区大力经营园林和离宫别馆,使北京成为中国封建时代都城规划和建设的最辉煌实例。在西方,在古希腊城邦时期已出现了希波丹姆规划模式。古代罗马建筑师马可·维特鲁威(Marcus Vitruvius Pollio)的《建筑十书》⑤阐述了城市选址、环境卫生、纺机建设、公共建筑布局等方面的基本原则。中世纪社会发展缓慢,城市多以教堂为中心。到了文艺复兴时期,建筑师阿尔伯蒂(A'er bo di)、安德烈亚·帕拉第奥(Andrea Palladio)、斯卡摩锡(Sikamoxi)等也提出了一些反映当时商业兴盛和城市生活多样化的城市理论和城市模式。产业革命前的欧洲城市城市规划多侧重于防御功能和政治需要,封闭性强。19世纪上半叶,一些空想社会主义者提出设想,把改良住房、改进城市规划作为医治城市社会病症的措施之一。19世纪和20世纪之交,霍华德倡导“田园城市”;1915年盖迪斯提出区域原则,倡导城市规划与区域规划相结合的学说。这一时期还出现了另一种建设实践:英国一些先进工业家在建设工厂的同时,建设新的工人镇。至今,城市规划仍是采取上面所说的旧城改建和新城建设两种基本形式。19世纪90年代,西欧各国已逐渐形成以公共投资改进市政建设和控制私人用地相结台的城市发展战略概念。制定城市建设法规最初的目的是维持整齐、清洁、安定的城市环境,以保障居民健康。城市建设和管理要有相应的法律体系,严格的城市建设法规可以提高城市规划和建设的质量。产业革命后,城市内部结构发生了根本的变化,促使人们从理论上研究城市的结构和形态,寻求最佳模式。1922年法国建筑师勒·柯布西耶(Le Corbusier)主张充分利用技术成就,建造高层高密度的建筑群,使城市集中发展,以求得最好的生活环境和最高的工作效率,这种思想被称为城市集中主义。美国建筑师赖特(Frank Lioyd Wrignt)提出的“广亩城市”认为城市应与周围的乡村结合在一起,平均每公顷居住人,被称为城市分散主义,这两种城市模式影响甚广。从城市功能要求出发提出各种城市布局形态,如带形城市、同心圆式的环状城市、楔子状结构城市、多核心城市等;从城市中各种系统的组织出发,宏观地研究城市所在的地区的空间结构与城市形态的关系;从微观上对构成城市的单元细胞进行剖析来研究城市的形态。二、我国近现代城市规划的编制阶段、编制任务、工作内容(一)城市规划编制层次根据《中华人民共和国城市规划法》规定,我国目前的城市规划编制层次,是在省(自治区)域城镇体系规划的指导下,编制城市总体规划和详细规划。大、中城市根据需要在城市总体规划的基础上可以编制分区规划,用以指导详细规划的编制。为了适应由计划向市场体制的转变,满足城市规划编制体系可以概括为“两阶段、五层次”的体系:两阶段是指城市总体规划阶段和城市详细规划阶段。五层次是指总体规划阶段的城市规划纲要、总体规划、分区规划三个层次和详细规划阶段的控制性详细规划、修建性详细规划两个层次。(二)城镇体系规划编制的任务和主要内容1.城镇体系规划编制的任务城镇体系规划编制的主要任务包括:综合评价城镇发展条件,制定区域城镇发展战略,预测区域人口增长和城市化水平,拟定各相关城镇的发展方向与规模,协调城镇发展与产业配置的时空关系,统筹安排区域基础设施和社会设施,引导和控制区域内城镇的合理发展与布局,指导区域内城市总体规划的编制。2.城镇体系规划的主要内容城镇体系规划一般包括下列主要内容:(1)综合评价区域和城市发展、开发建设的条件;(2)预测区域人口增长,确定城市化目标;(3)确定本区域内的城镇发展战略,划分城市经济区;(4)提出城镇体系的功能结构和城镇分工;(5)确定城镇体系的等级和规模结构;(6)确定城镇体系的空间布局;(7)统筹安排区域内基础设施和社会设施;(8)确定保护生态环境、自然和人文景观、历史文化遗产的原则和措施;(9)确定一个时期重点发展的城镇,提出近期重点发展城镇的规划建议;(10)提出实施规划的政策和措施。三、城市规划的法规体系、行政体系以及调整和审批程序一个国家的城市规划体系包括城市规划法规体系、城市规划行政体系和城市规划运作(规划编制和开发控制)体系三个基本组成部分。其中,城市规划法规体系是现代城市规划体系的核心,为城市规划行政和城市规划运作提供法理依据。(一)城市规划法规体系现代城市规划作为政府行政管理的法定职能,遵循依法行政的原则。与政府行政管理的其他法定职能一样,城市规划的法规体系包括主干法及其从属法规、专项发和相关法。(二)城市规划行政体系中国的城市规划行政体系体现了中央集权和地方自治的结合。根据《城市规划法》,城市规划的编制和审批实行分级体制。各级城市的人民政府负责组织编制城市规划。县级人民政府所在地镇的城市规划由县级人民政府负责组织编制。直辖市的城市总体规划由直辖市人民政府报国务院审批。省和自治区人民政府所在地城市、城市人口在一百万以上的城市以及国务院指定的其它城市的总体规划,经省、自治区人民政府审查同意后,报国务院审批。除此而外的其他城市的总体规划和县级人民政府所在地镇的总体规划,报省、自治区和直辖市人民政府审批,其中市管辖的县级人民政府所在地镇的中提规划,报市人民政府审批。分区规划和详细规划一般由市人民政府城市规划行政主管部门审批。(三)城市规划的审批城市规划实行分级审批:1. 全国城镇体系规划报国务院审批。2. 省、自治区城镇体系规划经国务院审查同意后,由建设部批复。3. 直辖市的城市总体规划,有直辖市人民政府报国务院审批。4. 省和自治区人民政府所在地的城市、城市人口在100万以上的城市及国务院指定的其他城市的总体规划由省、自治区人民政府报国务院审批。5. 其他设市城市和县级人民政府所在地镇的总体规划报省、自治区、直辖市人民政府审批,其中市管辖的县级人民政府所在地的总体规划报市人民政府审批。6. 其他建制镇的总体规划报县级人民政府审批。城市人民政府和县级人民政府向上级人民政府报批城市整体规划前,须经同级人民带包大会或者其常务委员会审议同意。四、城市规划与其他相关规划的关系(一)城市规划与区域规划的关系区域规划和城市规划都是在明确长远发展方向和目标的基础上,对特定地域的各项建设进行综合部署。区域规划可为城市规划提供有关城市发展方向和生产力布局的重要依据。区域的经济发展决定着城市的发展,城市的发展也会促进地区的发展。区域规划与城市规划要和相配合,协同进行,在城市规划具体落实过程中,有可能需对区域规划做某些必要的调整和补充。(二)城市规划与国民经济和社会发展计划的关系国民经济和社会发展中长期计划是城市规划的重要依据之一,而城市规划同时也是国民经济和社会发展的年度计划及中期计划的依据。国民经济和社会发展中与城市规划关系密切是有关生产力布局、人口、城乡建设以及环境保护等部门的发展计划。城市规划依据国民经济和社会发展计划话所确定的有关内容,合理确定城市发展的规模、速度和内容等。(三)城市总体规划与土地利用总体规划的关系我国城市总体规划和土地利用总体规划的规划目标是一致的,都是为了合理使用土地资源,促进经济、社会与环境的协调和可持续发展。土地利用总体规划以保护土地资源特别是耕地为主要目标,在比较宏观的层面上对土地资源及其使用功能进行划分和控制。而城市总体规划则重于城市规划区内土地和空间资源的利用。两者应该是相互协调和衔接的关系。(四)城市规划与城市环境保护规划的关系城市环境保护规划是对城市环境保护的未来行动进行规范化的系统筹划,视为有效地实现预期环境目标的一种综合性手段。城市环境保护规划属于城市规划中的专项规划范畴,是在宏观规划初步确定环境目标和策略指导下,具体指定的环境建设和综合整治措施。(五)城市规划行政部门与其他相关部门的关系城市规划行政主管部门与其他行政主管部门是平行的职能机构。各个机构依据法律授权或城市人民政府的指定,各有其主管的事务范畴,互不覆盖。各部门应当各司其职,互不越权。但是,城市规划与计划、土地、交通、房产、环保、环卫、防疫、文化、水利等许多方便的工作都是有密切的关系。各行政部门的工作需要相合衔接和配合。

城市是人类社会经济文化发展到一定阶段的产物。城市的出现以社会生产力除能满足人们基本生存需要外,尚有剩余产品为其基本条件。下面是由我整理的关于城市规划的论文范文,谢谢你的阅读。

浅论城市规划

摘要:在当今世界,城市是现代文明的集中体现,城市的发展对一个地区经济社会发展起着至关重要的推动作用。城市就像一块巨大的磁铁,吸引着各种生产要素的集聚。并在集聚效应和规模效应合作协作的催化作用下,各种经济迅速发展,从而带动了城市经济的迅猛发展。可以看出,做好城市的规划对发展经济有很大的帮助。

关键词:城市规划园林景观生态环境

Abstract: In today's world, the city is a concentrated expression of the modern civilization, the development of the city plays a vital role in promoting economic and social development in a region. The city is like a giant magnet, attracting a variety of factors in production agglomeration.

Keywords: urban planning; landscape; ecological environment

中图分类号:TU984 文献标识码:A文章编号:

城市是人类社会经济文化发展到一定阶段的产物。城市起源的原因和时间及其作用,学术界尚无定论。一般认为,城市的出现以社会生产力除能满足人们基本生存需要外,尚有剩余产品为其基本条件。城市是一定地域范围内的社会政治经济文化的中心。城市的形成是人类文明史上的一个飞跃。

一、城市规划的任务

我国城市规划的任务是:根据国家城市发展和建设方针、经济技术政策、国民经济和社会发展长远计划、区域规划,以及城市所在地区的自然条件、历史情况、现状特点和建设条件,布置城市体系;确定城市性质、规模和布局;统一规划、合理利用城市土地;综合部署城市经济、文化、基础设施等各项建设,保证城市有秩序地、协调地发展,使城市的发展建设获得良好的经济效益、社会效益和环境效益。

各国城市规划的共同和基本任务:通过空间发展的合理组织,满足社会经济发展和生态保护的需要。从城市的整体和长远利益出发合理有序地配置城市空间资源;通过空间资源配置,提高城市的运作效率,促进经济和社会的发展;确保城市的经济、社会与生态环境相协调,增强城市发展的可持续性;建立各种引导机制和控制规则,确保各项建设活动与城市发展目标相一致;通过信息提供,促进城市房地产市场的有序和健康的运作。

二、城市规划的发展

城市的发展是人类居住环境不断演变的过程,也是人类自觉和不自觉地对居住环境进行规划安排的过程。在中国陕西省临潼县城北的新石器时代聚落姜寨遗址,我们的先人就在村寨选址、土地利用、建筑布局和朝向安排、公共空间的开辟以及防御设施的营建等方面运用原始的技术条件,巧妙经营,建成了适合于当时社会结构的居住环境。可以认为,这是居住环境规划的萌芽。要实行规划区范围内全覆盖规划,统筹城乡发展,规划在保护自然生态环境基础上,重点突出中心城区职能、空间结构的调整与优化,合理确定和强化各组团产业依托,切实改善城镇生产、生活环境,推进村屯用地结构性调整。规划期内,逐步实现退宅还耕、退宅还林,促进农村人口向中心村、城镇集中;逐步缩小城镇与中心城区的差距,促进小城镇由数量型向质量性转变;逐步发展壮大组团,与中心城区形成联系紧密、资源互补的城市空间。最终实现城乡一体、协调共生的城市发展格局。突出社会公益设施建设,统筹经济与社会发展,规划健全各类公共服务设施,建立合理的级配体系;发挥公共投资导向性作用,促进规划区空间结构的形成和发展;进一步完善中心城区省会服务职能,加强现有城市中心的商业、文化娱乐等公共服务职能;努力促进以信息、金融等现代服务业为主的南部新中心的形成;结合市级文化、会展、体育等专项服务中心的设置,带动分区级中心形成与发展;以建设文化名城为目标,促进公益性文化事业繁荣兴旺,推动经营性文化产业蓬勃发展,全面提高社会文化生活质量。

三、城市发展中存在的问题

我们的城市发展还存在一些问题,比如盲目争建国际化大都市;盲目争建中心商务区;盲目追求高层建筑;盲目建设大量城市雕塑等,以上盲目的做法其实是城市在经济发展过程中不成熟的表现。明确城区发展方向,促进分区发展,为加快经济发展,促进城区、开发区和县域经济发展,在开展大量前期研究的基础上,提出了各城区、开发区的发展方向和功能定位。进一步调整能源消费结构,提高使用清洁能源的比重,发展集中供热,加强对汽车尾气的治理,综合整治大气污染。加快城市污水集中处理设施和城市垃圾无害化处理设施的建设。大力保护和改善生态环境,要保护好已有植被和各组团之间生态防护绿化带,进一步提高城市绿化覆盖率。要加强城市环境综合整治,改善城市生态环境。

四、城市景观规划的具体做法

城市景观规划是城市规划的一个重要环节,根据不同的地区,有不同的地理环境和人文历史。所以,城市景观规划要根据实际情况来设计和计划。要有选择,有目地,有侧重点的进行建设。具体的做法有以下几点:

1、确定景观的活跃元素

在分析了景观的基础上,寻找此景观的特色,最具历史意义的景观风貌,作为此景观的主角。这也是创造文明城市的根本所在。

2、划分特色景观区

要根据城市景观的特色和地理位置的功能进行建设,并渐渐的强化它的特色,从而继承和发扬城市的历史文化。

3、组织轴线景观

这要通过城市的主要干道来决定。

4、控制景观视廓

景观视廓就是为了使各个景观处于通透的状态,在各个方向都能欣赏到,而建立起来的景观走廊。

5、勾勒城市天际线

城市天际线是指自然景观和人工建筑物等形成的轮廓线。天际线轮廓应和景观视廓相配合,相协调。

五、城市景观要素

城市景观要素包括人工景观要素和自然景观要素。其中人工景观要素包括广场、建筑物、集贸市场、园林绿化、艺术小品、文化遗址。那么,自然景观有,大小山丘,石头、湖泊、海洋、古木名树。这些景观为文明城市做了重要的贡献,提高了人民的生活水平,陶冶了人们的情操。

六、经济发展与环境建设的关系

要处理好城市经济发展和环境建设的辩证关系。注意保护和改善城市生态环境,防止污染和其他公害,加强城市绿化建设和市容环境卫生建设,保护历史文化遗产、城市传统风貌、地方特色和自然景观;不能片面追求经济效益,以污染环境。破坏生态平衡、影响城市发展为代价,避免重复“先污染,后治理”的老路,而要使城市的经济发展与环境建设同步进行。人与环境是相互依存的有机整体,保持人与自然相互协调,既是当代人类的共同责任,也是城市规划工作的基本原则。

七、结语

城市的发展越来越快,人们的生活水平越来越高,城市规划成了社会的追求。城市研究任务艰巨而纷繁,这也说明它丰富的活力。城市永远在发展,城市问题也总是相伴而生,但人类必将更为自觉地运用广泛的知识与丰富的想象力、创造力,发展城市环境的规划、建设和管理。城市规划工作从最初社会经济发展的战略研究起,最终要落实到物质建设上,形成供人们生活和工作的形体环境。

城市规划是建筑和园林建设的前提,并为所需的空间准备条件,城市规划研究的进展也为建筑学和园林学的开拓提供了前所未有的广阔天地。规划师与建筑师、园林设计师的工作目标是一致的。随着人类社会的发展,这三学科的有机结合和协同创造,势必将形体环境的建设推向更高的境界。

参考文献:

俞孔坚《景观、文化、生态与感知》 北京科学出版社 1998

陈易《自然之韵――生态居住社区设计》 同济大学出版社 2003年

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城市规划管理一、引言随着社会经济的发展、城市的出现、人类居住环境的复杂化,产生了城市规划思想并得到不断发展。城市规划是关于一个城市较长时期内的战略性发展指导,其任务一是确定城市的发展方向、城市性质和城市的发展规模;二是综合部署城市各组成部分的用地,对工业、交通、住宅、商业、公共事业、基础设施等进行合理的组织和布局。在中国,汉代以前没有城市规划,城市规划应从曹操建造邺城时算起,但那也仅仅是以王权思想为指导的简单规划。一直到新中国成立后,城市规划才在理论、方法和实践取得了很大进展。二、什么是城市规划城市规划是这样一个过程。它依据城市发展目标和对城市的整体研究,通过对城市土地使用进行预期安排,制定城市发展的行动纲领。通过城市建设活动改造城市的空间状况,以引导城市有序发展。城市规划是在实践的基础上逐步发展起来的,现代城市规划是社会改良运动,政府行为和工程技术的结合体。但究竟什么是城市规划,无论在理论上还是实践上,对此均未获得过共识。我们认为无论从何种意义上讲,城市是一种客观现象,而规划则是一种意识或意志的表述,两者相互关系的整理,将有助于我们认识城市规划的本质和内涵。三、城市规划要坚持的原则城市规划是一项牵动经济、社会、文化、环境诸多因素的全方位的系统工程。城市规划是城市发展的龙头,是城市发展的蓝图。只有把城市规划好,才能逐步建设好、管理好。我认为城市规划工作应坚持以下几个原则。(一)是城市规划要坚持科学性。规划是龙头,规划是前提,规划是保证,因此城市规划编制要坚持科学性。对城市要进行科学的定位、定性、定向。编制城市总体规划、专业规划、分区规划、详细规划要科学,要符合当地实际。要以科学严谨的态度。使城市规划具有战略性、广域性、前瞻性、综合性和可操作性。要科学编制近期规划和长远规划。局部规划和总体规划,有效地指导城市建设,以免在一个城市、一个区域重复建设,避免今年起楼,明年炸楼,今天铺路,明天挖坑的现象而导致的资源浪费。(二)是城市规划要坚持超前性。也就是说城市规划要高起点、高标准、高质量、高水平。要根据城市经济发展竞争的需要,着眼于新经济时代对城市发展带来的新挑战,高起点筹划城市的发展格局。用先进的规划技术指标来指导城市建设管理和发展。避免城市建设重复运行。在利用规划对各种城市资源进行配置时有效地运用市场经济规律的杠杆,以集约合理为条件,最大限度地释放城市资源资本的潜能,使城市规划在城市建设发展中发挥最大的效益功能,成为创造财富的龙头。坚持城市规划超前性。确保城市规划“至少5O年不落后”。城市规划要留有余地,给城市发展留有充裕的空间,让未来的城市形象更加雄伟,让城市下一代规划者的才能得以全面的施展。(三)是要坚持连续性。城市规划是一项非常严肃的工作。要坚持“规划一张图,审批一支笔,一张蓝图绘到底”的原则。城市规划是严格按照程序进行的,具有权威性和法律效力,因此市、县政府应该按照上级批准的规划进行实施。城市规划不应该因为领导变化而变化,应该一届政府接着一届干,保持城市规划的连续性。(四)是城市规划要坚持群众性。为了使规划贴近群众,更趋于科学合理性,贯彻落实“三个代表”重要思想,代表最广大群众的根本利益,要充分发动广大市民共同参与,献计献策。城市规划要实行“阳光规划”。其主要内容是城市总体规划批前、批后要公示。让市民行使对城市规划的知情权、建议权、监督权。规划审批后。向社会公示规划图纸和文字内容,让市民了解、遵守并监督规划的实施。(五)是城市规划要坚持生态性。城市规划要注意人与自然生态和谐,使城市复合生态系统达到优化的目标。城市与自然环境浑然一体。要处理好城市规划与城市生态平衡的关系,追求生态城市。在搞好生态平衡的思想指导下,建立山水城市、森林城市、海滨城市、园林城市。四、城市规划的管理工作城市规划涉及政治、经济、文化和社会生活等各个领域,是一项全局性、综合性、战略性工作。要统一思想,提高认识,以改革的精神、科学的态度、求实的作风,努力提高规划制定和修编工作水平。首先,要加强领导和协调工作。规划是城市管理的第一要务。市长是城市规划工作第一责任人。地方各级人民政府特别是城市人民政府要切实负起责任,把城市规划工作纳入重要议事日程。明确具体的工作目标、任务和要求,发挥规划在城市管理中的龙头作用。有城市规划修编任务的地方要组成专门班子,提供必要的支持。拿出高水平的工作成果。国务院各有关部门要根据各自职责,搞好协调配合。加强对城市规划修编工作进行指导和监督。城市总体规划及近期建设规划的编制,要与国民经济和社会发展规划搞好衔接。其次,要推进科学民主决策。培养规划人才。培训现有工作人员,提高城市规划的科技含量。城市规划的编制要有长远眼光,提高战略性和前瞻性,为经济社会发展留有余地。要改进城市规划编制的组织方式,完善城市规划的公示、听证制度,考虑建立规划委员会制度,就城市近期建设规划、详细规划以及重大项目建设等问题。充分听取社会各方面的意见和建议,提高城市规划的公开性和透明度。第三,要依法制订和实施规划。进行规划修编的地方。首先必须对现行规划实施情况进行评价。查找问题,分析原因,提出解决问题的办法,确定修编的目标和任务,并按法定程序认定、报批和备案。规划一经批准,就具有法定效力,任何单位和个人都必须服从,保证规划的权威性和严肃性。要做好《城市规划法》修订工作,以及有关法规、规章的制定工作,为规划编制和实施提供相应的法律依据。第四,要完善城市规划的体制。建立健全城市规划管理体制,统一规划城区、各类开发区、卫星镇及城市地下空间。要发挥省级城镇规划行政主管部门的作用。保证省域城镇体系规划和城市总体规划的有效实施。要完善城市规划工作监督检查机制,研究建立城市规划督察员制度,建立必要的责任追究制度,对规划编制、审批、实施各个环节进行督查,及时发现问题,查处违法违规行为。五、结束语城市规划需要吸收其他学科的科研成果,但它理应建立在更扎实的基础上得到发展。我国目前城市规划中面临的一些难题,不是仅借助于其他学科的科研成果可以解决的。它面临整体观念和结构的转变。现代城市规划的发展已经揭示了这一点创新是一个民族发展的不竭动力,我国的城市规划出路在于创新,在于吸收和借鉴国外先进理论成果的基础上的自主创新,在于结合中国实际基础上的创新,只有这样,中国的改革开放才能向着更深更广的方向发展

城市规划与设计论文互联网文献

城市规划资料集中的《城市居住区规划设计》;重庆大学黄光宇的《居住区规划与设计》;重庆大学朱光瑾的《住宅建筑设计原理》。看好这三本书,小区规划足矣1

Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed key role of urban planning is urban renewal, and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructural decay.[1]Contents [hide]1 History of Planning 2 The Sustainable City 3 Aspects of Planning Aesthetics Safety Slums Reconstruction and Renewal Transport Suburbanization Natural environment 4 Actors in the planning process 5 Books Seminal to Urban Planning 6 References 7 Further reading 8 See also 9 External links[edit] History of PlanningUrban planning as an organised profession has existed for less than a century, however most settlements and cities have displayed various degrees of forethought and conscious design in their layout and agriculture replaced a nomadic existence, permanent human settlements, and larger settlements began to appear. These early cities became centres for trade, defence, and politics and as centres for distributing the agricultural surplus a settled farming society laid out with forethought and design permeate antiquity. Perhaps the earliest of these were those of the ancient Mesopotamian and Harrapan civilizations of the third century located near the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in modern day Iraq and some ancient cities of the Indus Valley in modern day India are perhaps the earliest examples of deliberately planned and managed cities in history. The streets of these early cities were often paved and laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. There was also with a hierarchy of streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways). In Harrapan settlements, archaeological evidence suggests the houses were laid out to protect from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their own wells, and sanitation. Ancient cities often had drainage, large granaries, and well-developed urban sanitation[2]The Greek Hippodamus (c. 408 BC) is widely considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of Miletus; Alexander commissioned him to lay out Alexandria, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the Mediterranean world, where regularity was aided in large part by its level site near a mouth of the ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact rectilinear grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges.[citation needed] Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in idea of rational planning collapsed with the idea of the res publica in the European Early Middle Ages. Round a fortress or fortified abbey or next to a Roman nucleus — sometimes itself abandoned— urban growth occurred "like the annular rings of a tree"[3] whether in an extended village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of elevation contours like the shapes that result from agricultural ideal centrally-planned urban space: Sposalizio by Raphael, 1504The ideal city resurfaced in the Early Renaissance in Florence, where the star-shaped city plan was adapted from the new cannon-resistant star fort. The star-shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of Renaissance urban planning: "The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half— from Filarete to Scamozzi— was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city"[4] Radial streets extend outward from a defined center of military, communal or spiritual power. Only in ideal cities did a centrally-planned structure stand at the heart, as in Raphael's Sposalizio of 1504 (illustration); as built, the unique example of a rationally-planned quattrocento new city center, that of Vigevano, 1493-95, resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. Filarete's ideal city, building on hints in Leone Battista Alberti's De re aedificatoria, was named "Sforzinda" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" Pythagorean figure, the circle, takes no heed of its undulating terrain in Filarete's manuscript.[5]The true heirs of Greek rational planning were the Muslims, who are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise),[citation needed] although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture cities in Central American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants.[citation needed]During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus. Firstly there was the industrialised city of the 19th century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th century there began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City the world's first garden cities, in Hertfordshire, UK. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents.[6]It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War. After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply constructed and became notorious for their social problems.[7]Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than making everything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.[8][edit] The Sustainable CitySustainable development has become some sort of a 'buzz-word' in the planning industry, with the recognition that present ways of consumption and living have led to problems like the overuse of natural resources, ecosystem destruction, pollution, growing inequality in cities, the degradation of human living conditions and human-induced climate change. Planners have, as a result, taken to advocating for the development of sustainable cities.[9]However, the notion of sustainable development can be considered as rather recent and evolving, with many questions surrounding this concept.[10] That said, it is often not difficult to recognise what are 'unsustainable' forms of lifestyles, and urban planning is recognised to play a crucial position in the development of sustainable Wheeler, in his 1998 article, suggests a definition for sustainable urban development to be as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns."[11]He goes on to suggest a framework that might help all to better understand what a 'sustainable' city might look like. These include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use, less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economics; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.[12]The difficult challenge facing planners comes with the implementation of sustainability visions, policy and programmes, and in the midst of doing so, the need to modify institutions to achieve these goals. This is still being worked out by urban planners.[edit] Aspects of Planning[edit] AestheticsThis article does not cite any references or help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any article has been tagged since June 2006. Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bath (England), 18th century private sector development was designed to appear developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.[13] Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.[14]Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna[citation needed].While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term, smart are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. (See List of planned cities)[edit] Safety The medieval walled city of Carcassonne in France is built upon high ground to provide maximum protection from within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources[citation needed]. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then the affected regions can be made into parkland or Greenbelt, often with the added benefit of open space weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of Newman’s defensible space theory cites the modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas, which are hard for residents to identify with. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder SourceJane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving ‘natural surveillance’ of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal "broken-windows" theory argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment[citation needed].Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. Haussmann's renovation of Paris created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In Rome (Italy), the Fascists in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. Robert Moses' developments in New York were intended to limit the effectiveness of public transit; bridges over parkways were built too low to accommodate buses, in order to restrict access to the beach by racial minorities and the social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.[edit] SlumsMain article: Slums The rapid urbanization of the last century has resulted in a signifcant amount of slum habitation in the major cities of the world, particularly in the Third World. There is significant demand for planning resources and strategies to address the issues that arise from slum development, and many planning theorists and practitioners are calling for increased attention and resources in this area, particularly the Commonwealth Association of Planners.[15]The issue of slum habitation has often been resolved via a simple policy of clearance, however more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as Nairobi's "Camp of Fire" program, where established slum-dwellers have promised to build proper houses, schools, and community centers without any government money, in return for land they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years. The "Camp of Fire" program is one of many similar projects initiated by Slum Dwellers International, which has programs in Africa, Asia, and South America.[16][edit] Reconstruction and RenewalMain article: Urban Renewal The overall area plan for the reconstruction of Kabul's Old City area, the proposed Kabul - City of Light devastated by war or invasion represent a unique challenge to urban planners: the area of development is not one for simple modification, nor is it a "blank slate". Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastructure like power, water and sewerage are often severely compromised and need to be evaluated to determine what, if anything, can be salvaged for re-incorporation. There is also the problem of population; more often than not, people are also still living in these areas, displaced but not removed, and their issues need to be addressed. Historic areas and religious or social centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital city of Kabul, Afghanistan, which after decades of civil war and occupation has regions that have literally been reduced to rubble. Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out of whatever can be salvaged. Any reconstruction plan proposed, such as Hisham Ashkouri's City of Light Development, needs to be sensitive to the needs of this community and its existing culture, businesses and Reconstruction Development plans must also work with government agencies as well as private interests to develop workable designs.[edit] TransportMain article: Transportation Planning Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit, urban planners must consider these factors in long term plans. Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the need to travel within it[citation needed]. Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport[citation needed].Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away[citation needed].Densities can be measured in several ways[citation needed]. A common method, used is the Floor area ratio, using the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below could be considered low density, and plot ratios above five very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centres are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provi

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