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Money is anything that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts.[1] The main uses of money are as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value.[2] Some authors explicitly require money to be a standard of deferred payment.[3]The term "price system" is sometimes used to refer to methods using commodity valuation or money accounting word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Hera Hera, located on Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Hera was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located.[4]. The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique).Economic characteristicsMoney is generally considered to have the following characteristics, which are summed up in a rhyme found in older economics textbooks: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a standard of deferred payment, and a store of value.[2][5][6]There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.[6] Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time.[7] 'Financial capital' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized of exchangeMain article: Medium of exchangeMoney is used as an intermediary for trade, in order to avoid the inefficiencies of a barter system, which are sometimes referred to as the 'double coincidence of wants problem'. Such usage is termed a medium of of accountMain article: Unit of accountA unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve into small units without destroying its value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again. Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be perceived as equivalent to any other, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money. A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect. Store of valueMain article: Store of valueTo act as a store of value, a commodity, a form of money, or financial capital must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved — and be predictably useful when it is so retrieved. Fiat currency like paper or electronic currency no longer backed by gold in most countries is not considered by some economists to be a store of liquidityMain article: Market liquidityLiquidity describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no — or minimal — spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as of moneyIn economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as moneyMain article: Commodity moneyCommodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity.[8] Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, barley, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or Price System economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as moneyMain article: Representative moneyRepresentative money is money that consists of token coins, other physical tokens such as certificates, and even non-physical "digital certificates" (authenticated digital transactions) that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold, silver or potentially water, oil or food. Representative money thus stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity which backs it, while not itself being composed of that money is any claim against a physical or legal person that can be used for the purchase of goods and services.[8] Credit money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: It is not payable on demand (although in the case of fiat money, "demand payment" is a purely symbolic act since all that can be demanded is other types of fiat currency) and there is some element of risk that the real value upon fulfillment of the claim will not be equal to real value expected at the time of purchase.[8]This risk comes about in two ways and affects both buyer and it is a claim and the claimant may default (not pay). High levels of default have destructive supply side effects. If manufacturers and service providers do not receive payment for the goods they produce, they will not have the resources to buy the labor and materials needed to produce new goods and services. This reduces supply, increases prices and raises unemployment, possibly triggering a period of stagflation. In extreme cases, widespread defaults can cause a lack of confidence in lending institutions and lead to economic depression. For example, abuse of credit arrangements is considered one of the significant causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s.[9]The second source of risk is time. Credit money is a promise of future payment. If the interest rate on the claim fails to compensate for the combined impact of the inflation (or deflation) rate and the time value of money, the seller will receive less real value than anticipated. If the interest rate on the claim overcompensates, the buyer will pay more than moneyMain article: Fiat moneyFiat money is any money whose value is determined by legal means. The terms fiat currency and fiat money relate to types of currency or money whose usefulness results not from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into gold or another currency, but instead from a government's order (fiat) that it must be accepted as a means of payment.[10] [11]Fiat money is created when a type of credit money (typically notes from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the .) is declared by a government act (fiat) to be acceptable and officially-recognized payment for all debts, both public and private. Fiat money may thus be symbolic of a commodity or a government promise, though not a completely specified amount of either of these. Fiat money is thus not technically fungible or tradable directly for fixed quantities of anything, except more of the same government's fiat money. Fiat moneys usually trade against each other in value in an international market, as with other goods. An exception to this is when currencies are locked to each other, as explained below. Many but not all fiat moneys are accepted on the international market as having value. Those that are trade indirectly against any internationally available goods and services [8]. Thus the number of . dollars or Japanese yen which are equivalent to each other, or to a gram of gold metal, are all market decisions which change from moment to moment on a daily basis. Occasionally, a country will peg the value of its fiat money to that of the fiat money of a larger economy: for example the Belize dollar trades in fixed proportion (at 2:1) to the . dollar, so there is no floating value ratio of the two money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be easily damaged or destroyed. However, here fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the . government will replace mutilated federal reserve notes (. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed.[12] By contrast, commodity money which has been destroyed or lost is supplyMain article: Money supplyThe money supply is the amount of money within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply in the US is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of gold is used as money, the money supply can grow in either of two ways. First, the money supply can increase as the amount of gold increases by new gold mining at about 2% per year, but it can also increase more during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the new world and brought gold back to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This kind of increase helps debtors, and causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. Second, the money supply can increase when the value of gold goes up. This kind of increase in the value of gold helps savers and creditors and is called deflation, where items for sale are less expensive in terms of gold. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and credit money backed by gold were used as money in the US from 1792 to policyMain article: Monetary policyMonetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek “to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.”[13]A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include:changing the rate at which the government loans or borrows money currency purchases or sales increasing or lowering government borrowing increasing or lowering government spending manipulation of exchange rates raising or lowering bank reserve requirements regulation or prohibition of private currencies taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz[14] supported by the work of David Laidler[15], and many nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors and the influence of monetarism has since of money The use of barter like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. Trading in red ochre is attested in Swaziland, shell jewellery in the form of strung beads also dates back to this period, and had the basic attributes needed of commodity money. To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, before market economies existed, people relied on tradition, top-down command, or community Shekel referred to an ancient unit of weight and currency. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and referred to a specific mass of barley which related other values in a metric such as silver, bronze, copper etc. A barley/shekel was originally both a unit of currency and a unit of to Herodotus, and most modern scholars, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coin.[17] It is thought that these first stamped coins were minted around 650-600 BC.[18] A stater coin was made in the stater (trite) denomination. To complement the stater, fractions were made: the trite (third), the hekte (sixth), and so forth in lower name of Croesus of Lydia became synonymous with wealth in antiquity. Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, Croesus contributed money for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient first banknotes were used in China in the 7th century, and the first in Europe issued by Stockholms Banco in the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie "in kind".[19]See also Numismatics portal Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Money Look up Money inWiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Money Category:Money Coin of account Counterfeit, for Counterfeiting of Money Credit money Currency market Economics Electronic money Federal Reserve Fractional reserve banking Full reserve banking Labor-time voucher Local Exchange Trading Systems Money creation non-market economics Numismatics — Collection and study of money Seignorage Standard of deferred payment World currency

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高效去除聚合物支持的纳米水合铁（Ⅲ）氧化物：重金属行为和XPS研究 摘要：本研究开发了一种聚合物为基础的混合型吸附剂（重油- 001）高效去除重金属[例如，铅（II），镉（Ⅱ）和铜（Ⅱ）不可逆转地浸渍水合铁（三] ）氧化物（重油）纳米粒子在阳离子交换树脂的D - 001（的R - SO3Na无纺布），揭示其机制的X射线光电子能谱（基于XPS）的研究。重油- 001结合了出色的处理，流动特性，传统和自然减员的阳离子交换树脂抵抗的HFOs对重金属离子的具体亲和力。相比为D - 001，对铅的吸附重油- 001选择性（二），铜（Ⅱ），镉（Ⅱ），是有很大的Ca（二）在较为集中的竞争改善。柱吸附结果表明，重油- 001的工作能力三个方面的重金属去除约4-6倍以上的D - 001从模拟电镀水（pH值〜）。此外，重油- 001是跟踪，特别是在消除从模拟自然水域铅（II），镉（二）符合饮用水标准的有效，数量级高于D - 001处理量的订单。对重油- 001性能优越的原因是唐南膜的影响东道国的D - 001以及具体的相互作用产生浸渍重油粒子对重金属离子，进一步对铅吸附的XPS研究证实。更有吸引力，疲惫的重油- 001能有效地再生珠的盐酸，氯化钠溶液（pH 3）无任何重大的重复使用能力的丧失。 1。简介：到水体仍然是一个重要的环境问题，重金属的排放，现在正越来越多地作为新的监管法规限制，以推动金属污水每十亿分之一（ppb），甚至更低的水平（美国环保局，2004年中国环保局，2008 ）。在重金属去除现有的技术，碱性沉淀历来为每百万次会议部分的首选技术（百万分之一的微量金属[例如）监管水平，铅（Ⅱ），镉（Ⅱ）等]的直废水排放点源，然而，这项技术通常仅限于≥1百万分之由于非晶态金属氢氧化物阶段和商业固液分离装置（代尔等有限的溶解度低效率的污水浓度。，1998年，2003年）。利用离子强酸性阳离子交换树脂的交换是另一个对工业废水（东布罗夫斯基等重金属有效去除效率的技术。，2004年;康等人。，2004年; Kurniawan等。，2006）或受污染的地下水（Vilensky等。，2002年;东布罗夫斯基等。，2004）。然而，一个简单的离子交换过程只有通过静电作用和非特异性驱动的重金属去除（德米尔巴什等。，2005年;卡莫纳等。，2008）。

文摘:本研究开发了一种聚合物混合吸着剂(HFO-001)为高效的重金属去除(如铅(2)、Cd、铜(II),(2)]不可逆转的浸渍水合氧化(铁(III)在cation-exchange HFO)粒子(R-SO3Na D-001树脂),这种现象的潜在机制的基础上揭示x射线光电子能谱(XPS)的研究。HFO-001结合了出色的处理,和摩擦阻力流量特性,传统的cation-exchange树脂与特定的关系入手,对重金属HFOs阳离子。D-001相比,吸附选择性的HFO-001对铅(II)、铜(二)、(2)Cd大大提高从Ca(II)中更大的浓度。结果表明,柱吸附能力的工作是4-6 HFO-001 D-001倍以上三方面的重金属去除从模拟电镀水(pH ~ )。同样,HFO-001尤为有效杀灭多种微量铅(II)和Cd(2)从模拟自然水域达到饮用水标准,以治疗量高于D-001数量级。性能优越的HFO-001归因于Donnan膜效应所举办D-001以及纳米粒子交互作用的特殊HFO浸渍对重金属阳离子作为进一步证实,由XPS研究吸附铅。更有吸引力,疲惫的HFO-001串珠可以有效地解决由HCl-NaCl再生(pH值(3),没有任何有意义的能力的重复使用的损失。 1。简介:重金属注入受纳水体环境问题仍然是重要的,现在正在日益规范作为新的法规限制金属废水推进亿欧元(合ppb),甚至更低(美国EPA,2004年的水平,中国2008年美国环保署)。在现有技术为重型元