西方经济学2500字论文

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price rise. A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely positive. But others don’t agree with the viewpoint. John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too much. However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this year. The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also decreases. Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher returns. But Mr. Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of gaiatsu. That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the history. He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen recently. However, that will not happen. One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would like. Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take place. So the inflation is not good news for cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of inflation. Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the demand. To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $ bills that are able to buy them with. If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $. However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of goods. So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the goods. This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of goods. (, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram below. In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price level. AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply curve. When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’. But the price level decreases from P to P’. So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $. This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of money. By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on anything. (, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten years. That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of deflation. The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the deflation. If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be good. For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was increasing. So the supply of goods obviously went up. Therefore, the price level dropped. Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same result. If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be bad. The economy contracted because of lack of liquidity. People may lose their jobs. Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off it. Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their jobs. (, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary policy. A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest rate. An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to 2006. In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased sharply. That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary policy. Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this policy. That would activate the aggregate demand. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation problem. One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too long. That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 years. Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated fully. The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic demand. So the purpose of the policy has not achieved completely. The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would like. Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest rate. So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange rate. As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange market. Foreign exchange is one type of financial assets. An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital returns. Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial market. If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the currency. If the interest rate drops, the return will decrease. Therefore, the attraction of the currency is low. BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 economy. That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital inflows. Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the imports. First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign goods. So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will decrease. It is good for Japanese exports and international reserve. Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national income. The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is falling. As a result, the company profits are reducing. So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain competitive. One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal wage. Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt-tightening. Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 years. So when the inflation is happening, the price level is increased. Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by deflation. So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is increasing. But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the problem. Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation period. In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short run.

经济全球化时代的后发优势与发展中国家的对策 ● 论文报告 ● 作品简介 根据联合国开发计划署发表的1999年度《人类发展报告》，占全球1/5的人口生活在收入水平最高的国家，他们拥有全球国内生产总值的86%，全球出口市场的82%，外国直接投资的68%，全球电话总数的74%；...

西方经济学，就是被运用于西方市场经济国家的经济学，有市场经济学之称。以1776年亚当·斯密《国富论》的出版为标志，西方经济学历经了200多年的风雨沧桑。在这个不长不短的历史进程中，从斯密、李加图、萨伊、穆勒、马尔萨斯、马歇尔到凯恩斯、弗里德曼、萨谬尔森、卢卡斯、斯蒂格利茨，经济学大师辈出；从古典经济学、新古典经济学到凯恩斯主义经济学、新古典宏观经济学和新凯恩斯主义经济学，经济学流派林立。百花齐放，百家争鸣，带来西方经济学的不断创新和发展，以致于文献上有“经济学帝国”之称。西方经济学它主要介绍流行于西方市场经济国家的现代经济理论与经济政策。它既研究古老而又现代的家政管理，又研究多姿多彩的企业经营，还大胆解说政府日益加码的经济调控。它既赞美价格机制这只“看不见的手”的效率优势，也无情的剖析市场机制在不少领域资源配置上的诸多缺陷。主要包括微观经济学和宏观经济学。微观经济学--研究家庭、厂商和市场合理配置经济资源的科学--以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象；以资源的合理配置为解决的主要问题；以价格理论为中心理论；以个量分析为方法；其基本假定是市场出清、完全理性、充分信息。宏观经济-研究国民经济的整体运行中充分利用经济资源的科学—以国民经济整体的运行为对象；以资源的充分利用为解决的主要问题；以收入理论为中心理论；以总量分析为方法，其基本假定为市场失灵、政府有效。从方法上看，西方经济学运用实证分析和规范分析梁中方法。实证分析企图超脱于一切价值判断，只研究经济本身的内在规律，并据此分析和预测人们的经济行为效果，着重回答“是什么”的问题。实证分析的步骤。定义----对经济学所研究的各种变量规定明确的含义；这里的变量有内生变量和外生变量、流量和存量；内生变量是一种理论内所要解释的变量，外生变量是一种在理论内影响其他变量而他本身则由理论外的因素来决定的变量；存量是通常在一定时点上才能有效测定的变量，流量是指通常在一定时期内才能有效测定的变量；假设----某一理论所适用的条件，在假设条件下得出结论，就象自然科学在严格的假定条件下分析自然现象一样，事实上整个社会即使天然的实验室；假说----未经证明的各个经济变量之间的关系；预测----根据假说对未来进行预期规范分析通过设定一些价值判断和好与坏的标准，作为经济理论的前提和制定政策的依据，并研究如何才能符合这些标准，着重回答“应该是什么”的问题。西方经济学德发展可以主要分为三个部分，即古典经济学、新古典经济学与现代经济学。古典经济学—从17世纪中期开始到19世纪70年代为止—包括英国经济学家斯密、李嘉图、西尼尔、穆勒、马尔萨斯，法国经济学家萨伊—以斯密为代表，其1776年出版的《国富论》被称为经济学上的第一次革命，建立了以自由放任为中心的经济学体系，他标志着经济学的诞生—代表性的教科书是穆勒《政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的应用》流行了20年。新古典经济学—从19世纪的“边际革命”开始到20世纪30年代为止—包括英国经济学家杰文史、马歇尔，法国经济学家瓦尔拉斯—边际效用价值论的提出被说成是经济学上的第二次革命，他标志着新古典经济学的开始，马歇尔在1890年发表的《经济学原理》是其代表性的教科书。现代经济学—开始于20世纪30年代凯恩史主义的产生---包括英国经济学家凯恩史、琼·罗宾逊、斯拉伐，以及美国经济学家萨缪尔森、弗里德曼和卢卡斯—其中凯恩斯在1936年出版的的《就业利息和货币通论》标志着当代经济学的产生，该书与爱因斯坦的《相对论》、达尔文的《物种起源》、马克思的《资本论》被人们称着改变世界历史的四大著作；而萨缪尔森的1948年开始发行的《经济学》至今已出第十六版，是第三本好教科书