Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions above.Keywords: metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " 2.1 metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures 2.1.1 relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. 2.1.2 non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: 2.1.2.1 Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). 2.1.2.2 counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. 2.1.2.3 Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . 2.2 Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. 2.3 in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. 2.4 The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. 2.4.1 metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. 2.4.2 differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. 2.4.3 different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. 3.1 Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
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Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
先介绍特点，然后结合具体的作品来分析，基本都是这样写的
如果楼主觉得多，可以自己删。戏剧起源关于戏剧起源，有九种说法。在此，我们只详细讨论各种关于戏剧起源的歌舞说的观点。歌舞说，此说又可析为三种：（1）宫廷乐舞说，清代纳兰性德《渌水亭杂识》云：“梁时大云之乐，作一老翁演述西域神仙变化之事，优伶实始于此。”刘始培在《原戏》中根据古代乐舞多有妆扮人物之事实，认为“戏曲者，导源于古代乐舞者也……则固与后世戏曲相近者也。”常任侠在《在国原始的音乐舞蹈与戏剧》中，较为系统的考察了原始音乐舞蹈的戏剧因素后认为“原始社会中的简单的音乐舞蹈，便是后来做成完美戏剧的前躯”。周贻白的《中国戏剧史长编》将中国戏剧的最早源头溯至“周秦的乐舞”。（2）上古歌舞说，张庚、郭汉城主编《中国戏曲通史》开篇首句云：“中国戏曲的起源可以上溯到原始时代的歌舞。”我们知道一切艺术起源于劳动，中国的歌舞也不例外。《书经.舜典》上说：“予击石附石，百兽率舞。”所谓百兽率舞，并不是像后来的儒家所神秘化的那样，说是在圣人当世连百兽都来朝拜舞蹈了，这种舞是用石相击或用手击石来打出节秦的，那时连鼓也没有，可见是很原始的。到后来才有了鼓，所谓“鼓之舞之，”这就进一步了。这种舞可能是出去打猎以前的一种原始宗教仪式，也可能是打猎回来之后的一种庆祝仪式，《吕氏春秋.古乐》篇中说：“帝尧立，乃命质为乐，质乃效山林溪谷之音以歌，乃以鏖革置缶而鼓之，乃拊石击石以像上帝玉磬之音，以致舞百兽。”这是战国时代关于古代乐舞的一种传说。可以透过这段歌舞的描写看出一幅原始猎人在山林中打猎的景象：“一面呼啸，一面打着、各种陶器、石器发响去恐吓野兽，于是野兽们就狼奔豸突地逃走而终于落网了，这位原始时代的艺术家“质”（其实并不是一个人，而是当时全体人民）就是按生活中的实际来创造了狩猎舞，这时所谓的“百兽”实际是人披兽皮而“舞”的场景，不过是对于狩猎生活的愉快和兴奋的回忆罢了。当然，这时的场景都是已经艺术化了，音乐、舞蹈都是已经节奏化了的，这种舞蹈带着浓厚的仪式性，它是响氏族的保护神或始祖祈祷，以求这次出去打猎获得丰收，或者是打猎回来为了酬谢神祗而举行的。但不管它是什么仪式，也不管它披着多厚的原始宗教的外衣，其实际意义，乃是一种对于劳动的演习、锻炼，这不光是锻炼了猎人们的熟练程度，而且也培养了年轻的猎人，《书经.舜典》中有命夔“典乐教胄子”的记载。“胄子”的注解是贵族子弟，但原始社会没有贵族，恐怕就是年轻武士了，用乐舞去教年轻武士，不是锻炼他们又是什么呢？因为它的内容就是原始人狩猎动作的模仿。既然是模仿劳动的动作，这也就可以说是最原始的表演了。原始的舞蹈总是和歌相伴的，他们决不是闷声不响地跳，而是一面跳一面欢呼歌唱。《吕氏春秋.古乐》篇中还说：“葛天氏之乐，三人操牛尾。投足而歌八阕。”略可想见当时的情形。 在原始社会，歌舞不止狩猎舞一种，还有战争舞，它的性质和狩猎舞是差不多的，到了进入农耕时代，又产生了一系列有关农事的祭典，如“蜡”如“雩”。蜡是在年终时，为了酬谢与农事有关的八位神灵而举行的。在这一天，公社的成员是尽情欢乐、开怀畅饮、唱歌跳舞的。这种风气一直遗留到春秋时代。《孔子家语.观乡》说：“子贡观于蜡。孔子曰：赐也，乐乎？对曰：一国之人皆若狂，赐未知其为乐也。孔子曰：百日之劳，一日之乐，一日之泽，非尔所知也。”可以看出这完全是劳动农民一年辛苦后的欢乐。相传“蜡”是伊耆氏所首创，一说伊耆氏就是神农氏足见这是与农业发达时期密切相连的风俗。“雩”是天旱求雨的祭祀。《周礼.春官》“宗伯”下记载：“司巫……若国大旱，则帅巫而舞雩。”《周记》的记载虽然是奴隶社会的事，但显然是原始时代的遗留下来的风俗，除此之外，在原始公社的许多节日也举行舞蹈。例如男女相爱，也有一个节日，大家会合在一起来唱歌跳舞。这个节日在汉民族就是祭祀氏族女始祖的日子，所跳的舞据说就叫做“万舞”现在西南少数民族的所谓“跳月”“摇马郎”“歌墟”等可能就是这种节日遗留下来的形态。原始歌舞的一个主要特点是它的全民性。到了奴隶社会，有了阶级，在艺术上的情况也就起了变化，这时祭祀仪式已经不复是全民性的节日歌舞，它成了只是奴隶主贵族所专有的了，第一个把天下传给自己儿子的禹，当他治水成功，做了部落联盟的首领之后，立刻“命皋陶作为夏龠九成，以昭其功”见《吕氏春秋.古乐》这里的乐舞已经开始失去全民的意义，而成为夸耀个人功绩的手段了，禹的儿子启也学习他这一手，用歌舞来夸耀，并装点自己的威严。据传说他三次上天，从天上偷来了《九招》（即《九韶》）歌舞，在“大穆之野”举行表演。从此以后，奴隶主贵族们便把本是属于全民的歌舞拿来歌颂自己的功德，《吕氏春秋.古乐》篇中还说：“汤乃命伊尹作为《大护》歌《晨露》修《九招》《六列》，以见其善”。而《大武》之舞却又是歌颂周武王和周公灭商及平定奴隶叛乱的武功的，这是所谓“武舞”它是手执盾牌和武器而舞蹈的，还有歌颂周朝统治者治国如何有秩序、如何天下太平的《韶舞》，这就是称为“文舞”。现从《史记.乐书》中引一段关于《大武》之舞的记载如下：宾牟贾侍坐于孔子，孔子与之言，及乐……子曰：“……夫乐者，象成者也，总干而山立，武王之事也，发扬蹈厉，太公之志也，武乱皆坐，周召之治也，且夫《武》，始而北出，再成而灭商，三成而南，四成而南国是疆，五成而分狭。周公左，召公右，六成复缀，以崇天子,夹振之而四伐，盛威于中国也，分夹 而进，事蚤济也，久立于缀，以待诸侯之志也。”从这段对于《大武》之舞的解释来看，他包涵着一段故事的内容，舞虽不足以表现它的内容，但演故事的倾向却也存在了。（3）西域歌舞说，陈村、霍旭初《论西域歌舞戏》中指出：汉唐间，随东西方交通之开拓、经济文化交流之频繁，西域文化艺术的一支——歌舞戏，逐步传入中原，成为我国戏剧的重要源流之一。无论汉代的百戏，唐代的乐舞，西域成分都占相当比重，尤其在唐代，戏剧的因素渗入乐舞之中，西域歌舞戏与中原传统戏剧的融合，不仅出现了唐代兴盛的歌舞戏品种，并对后世的戏剧有十分深远的影响，我国学者任半塘先生指出：唐代歌舞戏“纵面承接汉晋南北朝之渊源，横面彩纳西域歌舞戏之情调 ”早在半个多世纪以前，许地山先生就阐述了六朝时候西域诸如龟兹，康国等及伊斯兰或印度乐舞的东来，有“杂戏”也进入中土的见解。关于唐代歌舞戏，《旧唐书.音乐志》载：歌舞戏有大面、拨头、踏摇娘、窟垒子等戏。任半塘先生认为凡唐人“俳优歌舞杂奏”皆为歌舞戏。他在《唐戏弄》第二章《歌舞戏总》中还指出：“一旦内容有故，或技艺涉说白，虽记载简略，表现模糊。亦非认为歌舞戏不可。”属西域歌舞戏者，《旧唐书》中仅举“拨、头”一戏，曰“拨头出西域，胡人为猛兽所噬，其子求兽杀之，为此舞以象之也。”任半塘考歌舞戏，涉受西域影响的戏剧很多，明确指出为西域歌舞戏“剧录”者有“西凉伎”、“苏莫遮”、“舍利弗”等，属“戏体”者有“钵头”、“弄婆罗门”等。“苏莫遮”是西域歌舞戏中有代表性的一个剧目，对苏莫遮的记载，以唐慧琳《一切经音义》四十一为详细：苏莫遮，西戎胡语也，正云飒磨遮，此戏本出西龟兹国，至今犹有此曲，此国浑脱、大面、拨头之类也，或作兽面或像鬼神，假作种种面具形状，以泥水沾沥行人，或持索搭钩，捉人为戏，每年七月初，公行此戏，七日乃停。土俗相传云：常以此法禳厌，驱趁罗刹恶鬼食啖人民之灾也。”苏莫遮，又称泼寒胡戏，从文献上看，苏莫遮在中原，大都是供统治者娱乐的，自北‘周宣帝大象元年到唐玄宗开元元看130多年，常列为宫廷内玩赏的节目，这自然要经过无数次的改造，并随政治风云而变易。在这里叙述了歌舞说的观点，希望关于戏剧起源有更多的人关注和研究。
戏剧表演专业本科毕业论文开题报告
导语：全面分析戏剧表演与影视表演的异同，帮助自己更好的把握两者的特征，使表演进入一种更为宽广和自由的创作境地。下面是我分享的戏剧表演专业本科毕业论文的开题报告，欢迎阅读!
一、题目背景和意义
戏剧表演与影视表演间的异同,是常挂于影视圈口头的一个话题,但如何从理论层面予以剖析,既看到相互的"近亲性",又看到彼此的"殊异性";既要继承和借鉴戏剧表演诸多原理,又不至于混同对方和迷失自我;特别是在不少艺术院校设置"影视表演专业"的今天,其普遍意义是深远的。
影视的产生对戏剧表演的影响是巨大的。随着时代的发展，摄影技术的产生，灯光、道具的发展都对传统的表演概念带来了巨大冲击。表演的范畴扩大，类型更加复杂化。媒体从单项向多项化的视听发展，戏剧表演已经不仅仅局限在舞台上，剧场里，而是在向外扩大。传统的剧场表演，演员和观众的都有一种相对固定的空间距离，因此剧场里有座位，而影视观赏基本没这个问题，近镜头、特写镜头甚至已经排除了化妆、脸谱的必要性。事实上，影视表演是脱胎于戏剧表演的一种表演样式,影视表演与戏剧表演存在着许多共同的规律性;然而,影视表演和戏剧表演又从属于不同的艺术门类,影视表演一经确立,就逐渐培育、形成了自己鲜明独特的艺术特征。这些艺术特性及由此形成的美学原则又对影视表演自身的创作方式、记录方式及展现方式产生了许多制约与整合。作为影视演员,自觉认识和主动把握这些特征,会使自己的表演进入一种更为宽广和自由的创作境地。
二、国内外研究现状
戏剧与影视艺术在本质上讲，都是演员利用自身作为创作材料，塑造人物形象、表现主题思想的一门艺术。戏剧与影视艺术有着不可割舍的血脉关系。从表演艺术本身来看，戏剧与影视的表演方式既有共同之处又有区别，这也是由各自的艺术特性决定的。影视表演与戏剧表演同属表演艺术，在创作原则、创作方法和表演方法上都存在着许多共同的规律性。这决定了戏剧演员与影视演员可以相互流通人才。世界各国都有自己的优秀“两栖演员”或说“三栖演员”。然而，影视表演和戏剧表演又从属于不同的艺术门类，它们受到电影、电视剧、戏剧各自不同的艺术特性和美学原则的制约。表演艺术的发展，在世界范围内形成了斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基(斯派)、布莱希特(布派)和中国传统戏曲艺术(梅派)三大体系，这在学界基本上已达成共识。然而，从表演艺术实践的角度来看，三大演剧体系中影响最大的还是斯氏体系。斯氏体系第一次使戏剧表演艺术从演员的培养到舞台的实践都有了完整的科学体系，其影响遍及全世界。戏剧表演与影视表演是两种不同的表演形态，在艺术表现的手段上有很大的差异，但在艺术本质上是同一的。正如英国当代著名戏剧理论家和导演马丁•艾思林在谈到戏剧与电影电视时所言，“电影、电视剧和广播剧等这类机械录制的戏剧，不论在技术方面可能有多么不同，但基本上仍是戏剧，遵守的原则也就是戏剧的全部表达技巧所由产生的感受和领悟的心理学的基本原则。”因此，首先必须认识到戏剧表演与影视表演在本质上的同一性，具言之，即戏剧表演与影视表演在自我与角色的统一性问题上是相同的，都需要演员在表演创作中完成从自我走向角色的过程。其次，在表现手段和方式上，影视表演确有其独特之处，比如表演的非连贯性、无法与观众实时沟通、语言、情绪、形体表现的分寸感等问题，都与传统的戏剧表演的方式有所不同。
三、主要内容与待解决的问题
全面分析戏剧表演与影视表演的异同，帮助自己更好的把握两者的特征，使表演进入一种更为宽广和自由的创作境地，并努力探寻出实现“全方位解放”(“有机天性”、“自然个性”和“创作个性”)的有效途径。
戏剧表演与影视表演在创作原理、角色塑造、方式方法、分寸拿捏和时空关系中体现出的亲近性与殊异性，区别戏剧表演的“变形”与影视表演的“自然”、戏剧表演的“连贯性”与影视表演的'“问断性”、戏剧表演的“有反馈”与影视表演的“无反馈”，以及如何更好的展开演员的二度创作。
本论文课题以研究戏剧表演与影视表演中的角色创作艺术为目的，达到演员对角色创作艺术研究的思考和综合评述，帮助演员遵循各自的艺术规律，掌握表演技巧，从而进一步细化产生的。
四、设计方法与实施方案
(1)运用文献法，查阅和搜集国内外戏剧与影视表演艺术的有关文献资料，这是写好综述的基础信息。通过文摘、专业教程、讲座、索引期刊等检索工具书查阅文献以及采用互联网搜索等方法，系统的了解本课题研究动态和发展趋势。
(2)采用经验总结法。通过调查本学院学生日常在专业上的实践经验，以及研究演员在创作角色时的理论成果与实践创作，结合自身的创作经验，适时进行对演员角色创作艺术研究的思考和综合评述。
本论文准备从以下提纲中来进行具体研究和实施撰写：
绪论
1影视表演与戏剧表演之简介
1.1影视表演的基本概念
1.2戏剧表演的基本概念
2影视表演与戏剧表演之共性
2.1两种形式的表演在自我准备方面的一致性
2.1.1两种表演形式创作原理与技巧的亲密性
2.1.2两种表演形式对于假定与行动的相同性
2.1.3两种表演形式在创造角色性格过程中体验的相似性
2.1.4两种表演形式在体验中的下意识与控制的同等性
3影视表演与戏剧表演之差异
3.1无序的影视表演与连贯的戏剧表演
3.2摄像机的运用对两种表演的影响
3.3导演和演员在两种表演中存在的方式和地位不同
3.4两种表演形式对于时空关系的差异 结论
五、参考文献
[1]《演员自我修养》作者：斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基 中国电影出版社
[2]《斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基全集》作者：斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基 中国电影出版社(1979年9月版)
[3]《斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基在排演中》作者：斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基 电影出版社(1981年版)
[4]《表演心理学》作者：李锦云 世界图书出版公司(2007年版)
[5]《斯氏体系精华》作者：(苏)玛 阿 费烈齐阿诺娃 中国电影出版社
[6]《影视表演学基础——21世纪中国影视艺术系列丛书》作者：苏彭成 中国广播电视出版社(2002年版)
[7]《表演技巧》[中译文]作者：胡博译 中国戏剧出版社(2003年版)
[8]《布莱希特论戏剧》 中国戏剧出版社
[9]《电影表演探索》作者：白杨 中国电影出版社(1979年版)
[10]《戏剧表演学》作者：胡导 中国戏剧出版社(2009年版)
[11]《影视戏剧表演技巧与训练》作者：胡敏 湖南师范大学出版社(1999年版)
[12]《表演创作论》作者：郭薄澜 李佛华 李永军 中国戏剧出版社
[13]《电影戏剧中的表演艺术》作者：齐士龙 中国电影出版社
[14]《表演学》作者：(美)贝拉·伊特金 华夏出版社
[15]《黄会林影视戏剧艺术论集》作者：黄会林 北京师范大学出版社(2002年版)
[16]《艺术鉴赏影视戏剧》作者：朱典淼 华东师范大学出版社(1997年版)
[17]《戏剧表演基础作》作者：梁伯龙 文化艺术出版社(2004年版)
[18]《表演艺术教程》作者：林洪桐 北京广播学院出版
[19]《中国电影表演艺术家表演解读》作者：崔新琴 霍璇 中国戏剧出版社
[20]《戏剧表演基础》作者：梁伯龙 李月 文化艺术出版社
中国戏剧和西方戏剧，在剧本基础、戏剧元素、艺术形式以等方面即存在共同点，又在文化要素、写实写意手法、艺术表演程式、艺术理念等方面，有很大差异。 一、中国戏剧和西方戏剧的相同之处 （一）中国戏剧和西方戏剧剧本创作都基于诗歌。由于戏剧要求歌唱时有特定的韵律，所以不管是起源于古希腊的西方戏剧，还是中国戏剧，都讲究诗歌的“韵味”，都带有“歌”的特点。或者说，中西方戏剧都是由演员将某个故事或情境，以对话、歌唱或动作等方式表演出来的艺术。 （二）中国戏剧和西方戏剧的元素相同。中西方戏剧都具有四个元素，包括了“演员”、“故事”、“舞台”和“观众”。 （三）中西方戏剧的艺术形式类同。二者都是将众多艺术形式，以一种标准聚合在一起，这些形式包括诗、乐、舞。此外，也都要进行舞台包装，包括舞台美术、服装、化妆等方面。 二、中西方戏剧的不同之处 （一）中西方戏剧的根本文化要素不同。中国戏剧的根本要素是“礼乐”，即“礼节”和“音乐”。西方上古戏剧是将诗与歌融为一体，诗歌是她的根本要素。 （二）中西方戏剧写实写意不同。中国戏剧追求的艺术境界不是写实而是写意，求其神似而非形似。这种写意的手法，如骑马无须有马、坐轿无须有轿；靠一根带丝穗的马鞭，可表现烈马奔驰；几个跑龙套的绕场一周，就能表现千军鏖战、关山飞度。而西方戏剧追求写实，其题材多攫取于现实的生活，舞台上要真实描摹和再现人物、生活，以反映生活中的纠葛和斗争为主旨，力求再现生活真实的同时，揭示生活的真谛。 （三）中西方戏剧艺术表演程式不同。中国戏剧在长期的艺术实践中，经过集中、概括、提炼，形成了其独有的一整套极其夸张的艺术程式。戏剧中的角式分成“行”，在服饰和形体的包装上，在脸谱的敷彩化装上均有生、旦、净、末、丑的固有范式。戏剧中独白、对白、旁白等语言也须符合剧情规定和人物身份、符合“行”、“角”的分野，拿腔捏调。那种尖声细气或高亢喊嗓，那种抑扬顿挫、矫柔造作的语音发声，远离生活中的语言规范，是中国戏剧特有的。而西方戏剧肯定人的价值、本能和欲望；无论在内容抑或形式上都紧密联系社会，反映人性的矛盾冲突。这种与现实生活的贴切性，使戏剧的表演重在现实的艺术再现和提升。中国戏剧可以喝茶无杯、斟酒无壶，西方戏剧有必备的道具。中国戏剧有好人坏人、忠良奸佞全绘在脸上的脸谱；西方戏剧全靠角色揣摩和艺术表演的真实再现。 （四）中西方戏剧艺术理念不同。以中西方最重要艺术主题的悲剧为例，中国的悲剧是以“苦戏”、“冤戏”、“哭戏”为特征。舞台上大多是处于社会最低层的弱势群体，是如窦娥般弱小善良、无辜受害的小人物。中国悲剧以惩恶扬善、先苦后甜为结局，但这种结局一般不是抗争的结果，而是依赖外力的作用，表达的只是善恶有报的愿望，这是中国戏剧的艺术理念。而西方悲剧舞台上常以英雄为主角。赞美使其拔高，甚至神化。真善美与假恶丑的抗争，让人看到正义的力量。在正义和邪恶的较量中，任何胜利都必须付出极其惨重的代价。但人类的希望也正在于此。
1、 (英语系毕业论文)中西戏剧发展快慢对比及其原因 摘 要 中西戏剧都有悠久的历史，无论是西方戏剧还是中国戏剧，都起源于民间，并与原始人祭祀神灵，欢庆节日的仪式密切联系在一起的。回顾希腊戏剧产生形成的历史，它发展快，成就高，在世界上的影响很... 类别：毕业论文 大小：95 KB 日期：2007-07-14 2、 (英语系毕业论文)从中美管理方式的不同透析中西方文化差异与整合 摘 要随着全球化的来临，中国与外界的交流越来越频繁，特别是在商界。本论文主要探讨中美在管理上的交流。如今的商界，如同一个大家庭，参与者遍布世界各地。正是由于这个原因，各国的管理模式也趋于一体化。但是... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-26 3、 (英语系毕业论文)在经济全球化下中西方文化差异与跨文化管理 摘 要伴随着世界经济的快速增长,跨国公司的飞速发展, 全球商业活动的猛烈激增，同时伴随着在文化多样化环境下的相关管理问题的出现，跨国公司的人员必须与来自不同文化背景的人打交道，这种文化差异时而会造成... 类别：毕业论文 大小：96 KB 日期：2007-06-26 4、 (英语系毕业论文)中西服饰文化差异对语言的影响 摘 要中西服饰受其各自不同哲学和文化的影响体现出不同的特征：儒家思想和大陆文明使中国服饰呈现出繁冗，宽博的特征。它不注重外表的装饰，以宽松的衣服遮掩身体的曲线，在思想上追求人格的完美，以“谦谦君... 类别：毕业论文 大小：90 KB 日期：2007-06-25 5、 (英语系毕业论文)快餐食品对中西方传统饮食文化的影响力 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：88 KB 日期：2007-06-25 6、 (英语系毕业论文)从礼仪角度谈中西文化的差异性 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-23 7、 (英语系毕业论文)中西饮食文化及其差异 摘 要中国悠久历史5000年，西方世界五六百年的社会历程。中国有灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化；西方国家则有精巧专维、自成体系的饮食文明。民以食为天，中国有自己独特丰富的饮食文化底蕴。然而今天除了中国... 类别：毕业论文 大小：100 KB 日期：2007-06-21 8、 (英语系毕业论文)中西酒店文化比较及探讨 摘 要在经济蓬勃发展的今天，旅游业风风火火地发展起来了，作为与旅游业相配套的酒店业也相应的完善起来，且更加趋于国际化。中国已经入世，这更给中国的酒店业带来一个新的发展契机，但世界上酒店发展规模空前，...
Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
你要的是这个吗？外国文学论文论题1．重读《美狄亚》2．重释列那狐形象3．重评希斯克厉夫（《呼啸山庄》）4．对《日瓦戈医生》的再认识5．解读凯尔泰斯·伊姆雷的《无命运的人生》6．解读君特•格拉斯的《剥洋葱》7．解读君特•格拉斯的《比目鱼》8．解读君特•格拉斯的《母鼠》9．解读劳伦斯的《儿子与情人》10．解读埃尔夫丽德·耶利内克的《钢琴教师》11．解读海明威的《老人与海》象征内涵12．解读雷马克的《西线无战事》13．解读亨利希•伯尔的《莱妮和他们》14．希腊神话中的女神形象15．简论契诃夫笔下的女性世界16．屠格涅夫笔下的农民形象17．狄更斯小说中的儿童形象18．陀思妥耶夫斯基作品中的父亲形象19．君特·格拉斯小说中的诗歌21．J.D.塞林格《麦田里的守望者》中的主人公霍尔顿·考尔菲德的形象分析22．探析《钦差大臣》的狂欢化23．从《小癞子》看流浪汉小说结构模式24．论《断头台》的复调性（艾特玛托夫）25．分析杜拉斯的《情人》的叙事技巧26．如何理解困扰当代西方的“荒诞”观？27．关于西方现代派文学中人的异化问题28．从悲剧《禁闭》看萨特的哲学思想29．论萨特的《局外人》的现代意识30．奈保尔的“殖民地文学”反映了被殖民者怎样复杂的思想？31．论卡夫卡对现代派文学创作的贡献。32．《钢琴教师》中主人公埃里卡的自残说明了什么？33．解读迪伦马特的《老妇还乡》的现实意义。34．谈谈米兰·昆德拉的《不能承受的生命之轻》的哲学启示。35．论君特•格拉斯小说的忏悔情结36．关于勒·克莱齐奥①勒·克莱齐奥与中国②勒·克莱齐奥创作中的乌托邦情结③勒·克莱齐奥创作的文化解读④勒·克莱齐奥作品的叙事艺术38．布克奖、俄语布克奖39．果戈理与中国（果戈理诞辰一百周年）40.从拉斯柯尔尼科夫的犯罪心理结构看潜意识的作用41.中世纪文学与基督教的关系42.堂吉诃德与哈姆雷特形象比较研究。43.试论巴尔扎克的世界观与创作方法的矛盾。44.陀思妥耶夫斯基创作中的宗教问题研究。45.卡夫卡小说中的异化主题46.莎士比亚喜剧中的女性形象47.论《俄狄浦斯王》的冲突艺术美48.《亨利四世》中的福斯塔夫形象49.《傲慢与偏见》的戏剧叙述50.《呼啸山庄》的叙述技巧与结构艺术51.劳伦斯小说艺术的现代倾向52.从《愤怒的葡萄》看斯坦倍克与基督教文化53.论马尔克斯《百年孤独》中的孤独意识54.茨威格小说人物精神世界探幽55.卡夫卡及其作品中的荒诞意识56.论福克纳短篇小说的乡土情结57.萨特存在主义“境遇剧”与自由58.艾特玛托夫小说中的神话模式 60.沉默与爆发的魅力——试论苔丝悲剧中的性格因素61.从海丝特的悲剧看《红字》对清教思想的批判62.中西文学中的人文精神63.探析“雷雨”的审美内涵--奥斯特洛夫斯基《大雷雨》与曹禺《雷雨》之比较64.希腊神话与中国神话比较研究65.东西方戏剧“弃妇”形象比较研究66.西方文学与宗教神话原型67.中国近代戏剧形式与外来文化68.中国的武侠小说与西方骑士文学比较研究69.《雷雨》与《娜拉》比较研究70.《雷雨》中的宗教文化色彩71.繁漪和伯莎比较研究72安娜和娜拉比较研究73.由简•爱、娜拉和安娜的命运看女性意识的觉醒74《鲁滨逊漂流记》的基督教色彩75.西方宗教文化对中国现代文学的影响76.中西长篇小说的结构差异比较研究77.梁启超文学创作中的外来文化因素78.黄遵宪诗文创作中的外来影响79.徐志摩诗歌中的英国形象80.朱生豪译品中的英国形象81.英国浪漫文学思潮对中国现代诗歌的影响82.屠格涅夫和沈从文文学创作中的自然人文景观比较研究83.林黛玉与简爱形象比较84.复仇母题研究---《哈姆雷特》、《基督山伯爵》、《呼啸山庄》、《赵氏孤儿》等相关作品比较研究85.陈白露与茶花女悲剧比较86.鲁迅与陀思妥耶夫斯基小说的心理描写比较87.拜伦的《该隐》与鲁迅的《狂人日记》比较88.追求个性解放的女性----安娜与繁漪比较研究89.安娜与林黛玉的爱情悲剧比较研究90.阿Q与堂吉诃德比较研究91.郝思嘉与王熙凤比较研究92.《俄狄浦斯王》与《雷雨》艺术魅力比较93.郁达夫的“零余人”与西方文学的“多余人”比较94.中西爱情诗比较研究95.中西文学中的“负心汉”形象比较96.中西“风尘女子”形象比较97.屠格涅夫对沈从文文学创作的影响98.中西文学中的“异化”母题比较研究 99.中西文学中的“死亡结局”对比研究100.余华的《活着》与海明威的《老人与海》中的老人形象比较研究101.屠格涅夫对中国文学作家的影响102.尼采对鲁迅文学创作的影响103.中西十四行诗比较研究104.“恋母情结”母题在中西文学作品中的对比研究
莎士比亚在约1590～1612的20余年内共写了三十七部戏剧（如加上与弗莱彻合写的《两位贵亲》则是三十八部），还写有二首长诗《维纳斯与阿多尼斯》，《鲁克丽丝受辱记》和一百五十四首十四行诗。他的戏剧多取材于历史记载、小说、民间传说和老戏等已有的材料，反映了封建社会向资本主义社会过渡的历史现实，宣扬了新兴资产阶级的人道主义思想和人性论观点。由于一方面广泛借鉴古代戏剧、英国中世纪戏剧以及欧洲新兴的文化艺术，一方面深刻观察人生，了解社会，掌握时代的脉搏，故使莎士比亚得以塑造出众多栩栩如生的人物形象，描绘广阔的、五光十色的社会生活图景，并使之以悲喜交融、富于诗意和想象、寓统一于矛盾变化之中以及富有人生哲理和批判精神等特点著称。 一般来说，莎士比亚的戏剧创作可分以下3个时期： � 第一时期（1590～1600年） 以写作历史剧、喜剧为主，有9部历史剧、10部喜剧和2部悲剧。 9部历史剧中除《约翰王》是写 13 世纪初英国历史外 ，其他8部是内容相衔接的两个4部曲 ：《 亨利六世 》上 、中、下篇与《查理三世》；《查理二世》、《亨利四世》（被称为最成功的历史剧）上、下篇与《亨利五世》。这些历史剧概括了英国历史上百余年间的动乱，塑造了一系列正、反面君主形象，反映了莎士比亚反对封建割据，拥护中央集权，谴责暴君暴政，要求开明君主进行自上而下改革，建立和谐社会关系的人文主义政治与道德理想。 10部喜剧《错误的喜剧》、《驯悍记》、《维洛那二绅士》、《爱的徒劳》、《仲夏夜之梦》、《威尼斯商人 》、《 温莎的风流娘儿们 》、《无事生非》、《皆大欢喜》和《第十二夜》大都以爱情、友谊、婚姻为主题，主人公多是一些具有人文主义智慧与美德的青年男女，通过他们争取自由、幸福的斗争，歌颂进步、美好的新人新风，同时也温和地揭露和嘲讽旧事物的衰朽和丑恶，如禁欲主义的虚矫、清教徒的伪善和高利贷者的贪鄙等。莎士比亚这一时期戏剧创作的基本情调是乐观、明朗的，充满着以人文主义理想解决社会矛盾的信心，以致写在这一时期的悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》中，也洋溢着喜剧气氛。尽管主人公殉情而死，但爱的理想战胜死亡，换来了封建世仇的和解。然而，这一时期较后的成熟喜剧《威尼斯商人》中，又带有忧郁色彩和悲剧因素，在鼓吹仁爱、友谊和真诚爱情的同时，反映了基督教社会中弱肉强食的阶级压迫、种族歧视问题，说明作者已逐渐意识到理想与现实之间存在着难以解决的矛盾。 第二时期（1601～1607年） 以悲剧为主 ，写了3部罗马剧、5部悲剧和3部“阴暗的喜剧”或“问题剧”。 罗马剧《尤利乌斯·凯撒》、《安东尼和克莉奥佩特拉》和《科里奥拉努斯》是取材于普卢塔克《希腊罗马英雄传 》的历史剧。 四大悲剧《哈姆雷特》、《 奥赛罗 》、《 李尔王 》、《麦克白》和悲剧《雅典的泰门》标志着作者对时代、人生的深入思考，着力塑造了这样一些新时代的悲剧主人公：他们从中世纪的禁锢和蒙昧中醒来，在近代黎明照耀下，雄心勃勃地想要发展或完善自己，但又不能克服时代和自身的局限，终于在同环境和内心敌对势力的力量悬殊斗争中，遭到不可避免的失败和牺牲。哈姆雷特为报父仇而发现“整个时代脱榫”了，决定担起“重整乾坤”的责任，结果是空怀大志，无力回天。奥赛罗正直淳朴，相信人而又嫉恶如仇，在奸人摆布下杀妻自戕，为追求至善至美反遭恶报。李尔王在权势给他带来的尊荣 、自豪 、 自信中迷失本性 ，丧失理智，幻想以让权分国来证明自己不当国王而做一个普通人，也能同样或更加伟大，因而经受了一番痛苦的磨难。麦克白本是有功的英雄，性格中有善和美的一面，只因王位的诱惑和野心的驱使，沦为“从血腥到血腥”、懊悔无及的罪人。这些人物的悲剧，深刻地揭示了在资本原始积累时期已开始出现的种种社会罪恶和资产阶级的利己主义，表现了人文主义理想与残酷现实之间矛盾的不可调和，具有高度的概括意义。 由于这一时期剧作思想深度和现实主义深度的增强，使《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》、《终成眷属》和《一报还一报》等“喜剧”也显露出阴暗的一面，笼罩着背信弃义、尔虞我诈的罪恶阴影，因而被称为“问题剧”或“阴暗的喜剧”。 第三时期（1608～1613）倾向于妥协和幻想的悲喜剧或传奇剧。 主要作品是4部悲喜剧或传奇剧《泰尔亲王里克里斯》、《辛白林》、《冬天的故事 》、《暴风雨》。这些作品多写失散、团聚、诬陷、昭雪。尽管仍然坚持人文主义理想，对黑暗现实有所揭露，但矛盾的解决主要靠魔法、幻想、机缘巧合和偶然事件，并以宣扬宽恕、容忍、妥协、和解告终。 莎士比亚还与弗莱彻合作写了历史剧《亨利八世》和传奇剧《两位贵亲》，后者近年来被有的莎士比亚戏剧集收入。莎士比亚作品的创作背景 1590年到1600年是莎士比亚创作的早期，又称为历史剧、喜剧时期。这一时期莎士比亚人文主义思想和艺术风格渐渐形成。当时的英国正处于伊丽莎白女王统治的鼎盛时期，王权稳固统一，经济繁荣。莎士比亚对在现实社会中实现人文主义理想充满信心，作品洋溢着乐观明朗的色彩。这一时期，他写的历史剧包括《理查三世》（1592）、《亨利四世》（上下集）（1597—1598）和《 亨利五世 》（1599）等9部。剧本的基本主题是拥护中央王权，谴责封建暴君和歌颂开明君主。比如，《亨利四世》展现的是国内局势动荡的画面，贵族们联合起来反叛国王，但叛乱最终被平息；王太子早先生活放荡，后来认识错误，在平定内乱中立下战功。剧作中，历史事实和艺术虚构达到高度统一。人物形象中以福斯塔夫最为生动，此人自私、懒惰、畏缩，却又机警、灵巧、乐观，令人忍俊不禁。 这一时期创作的喜剧包括诗意盎然的《仲夏夜之梦》（1596）、扬善惩恶的《威尼斯商人》（1597）、反映市民生活风俗的《温莎的风流娘儿们》（1598）、宣扬贞洁爱情的《无事生非》（1599）和歌颂爱情又探讨人性的《第十二夜》（1600）等10部。这些剧本基本主题是爱情、婚姻和友谊，带有浓郁的抒情色彩，表现了莎士比亚的人文主义生活理想。与此同时，他还写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（1595）等悲剧3部，作品虽然有哀怨的一面，但是基本精神与喜剧同。莎士比亚还写有长诗《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》（1592—1593）、《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593—1594）和154首十四行诗。 17世纪初，伊丽莎白女王一世与詹姆士一世政权交替，英国社会矛盾激化，社会丑恶日益暴露。这一时期，莎士比亚的思想和艺术走向成熟，人文主义理想同社会现实发生激烈碰撞。他痛感理想难以实现，创作由早期的赞美人文主义理想转变为对社会黑暗的揭露和批判。莎士比亚创作的第二时期（1601—1607），又称悲剧时期。他写出了《哈姆莱特》（1601）、《奥瑟罗》（1604）、《李尔王》（1606）、《麦克白》（1606）和《雅典的泰门》（1607）等著名悲剧。《奥瑟罗》中出身贵族的苔丝狄蒙娜不顾父亲和社会的反对，与摩尔人奥瑟罗私下结婚，表现了反对种族偏见的主题，而导致他们悲剧的原因不仅是奥瑟罗的嫉妒，而且是以伊阿古为代表的邪恶势力的强大。奥瑟罗临死前的清醒，包含着人类理性的胜利。《李尔王》中展现的则是一个分崩离析的社会，李尔王因为自己的刚愎自用付出了生命的代价，也给国家和人民带来了巨大的灾难。主人公从具有绝对权威的封建君主变成了一无所有、无家可归的老人，人物命运和性格发生巨大的变化，这在莎士比亚的作品中最具特色。《麦克白》中，一位英雄人物由于内在的野心和外部的唆使，成为个人野心家和暴君。其悲剧意义在于，个人野心和利己主义可以毁灭一个原本并非邪恶的人物。总体而言，这些悲剧对封建贵族的腐朽衰败、利己主义的骇人听闻、金钱关系的罪恶和劳动人民的疾苦，作了深入的揭露；风格上，浪漫欢乐的气氛减少，忧郁悲愤的情调增加，形象更丰满，语言更纯熟。 1608年以后，莎士比亚进入创作的最后时期。这时的莎士比亚已看到人文主义的理想在现实社会中无法实现，便从写悲剧转而为写传奇剧，从揭露批判现实社会的黑暗转向写梦幻世界。因此，这一时期又称莎士比亚的传奇剧时期。这时期，他的作品往往通过神话式的幻想，借助超自然的力量来解决理想与现实之间的矛盾；作品贯串着宽恕、和解的精神，没有前期的欢乐，也没有中期的阴郁，而是充满美丽的生活幻想，浪漫情调浓郁。《暴风雨》（1611）最能代表这一时期的风格，被称为“用诗歌写的遗嘱”。此外，他还写有《辛白林》和《冬天的故事》等3部传奇剧和历史剧《亨利八世》。 莎士比亚的作品从生活真实出发，深刻地反映了时代风貌和社会本质。他认为，戏剧“仿佛要给自然照一面镜子：给德行看一看自己的面貌，给荒唐看一看自己的姿态，给时代和社会看一看自己的形象和印记”。马克思、恩格斯将莎士比亚推崇为现实主义的经典作家，提出戏剧创作应该更加“莎士比亚化”。这是针对戏剧创作中存在的“把个人变成时代精神的单纯的传声筒”的缺点而提出的创作原则。所谓“莎士比亚化”，就是要求作家象莎士比亚那样，善于从生活真实出发，展示广阔的社会背景，给作品中的人物和事件提供富有时代特点的典型环境；作品的情节应该生动、丰富，人物应该有鲜明个性，同时具有典型意义；作品中现实主义的刻画和浪漫主义的氛围要巧妙结合；语言要丰富，富有表现力；作家的倾向要在情节和人物的描述中隐蔽而自然地流露出来。 莎士比亚的作品包括： 悲剧：罗密欧与朱丽叶，麦克白，李尔王，哈姆雷特，奥瑟罗，泰特斯·安特洛尼克斯，裘力斯·凯撒，安东尼与克莉奥佩屈拉（埃及艳后），科利奥兰纳斯，特洛埃围城记，雅典的泰门等。 喜剧：错中错，终成眷属，皆大欢喜，仲夏夜之梦，无事生非，一报还一报，暴风雨，驯悍记，第十二夜，威尼斯商人，温莎的风流娘们，爱的徒劳，维洛那二绅士，泰尔亲王佩力克尔斯，辛白林，冬天的故事等。 历史剧：亨利四世，亨利五世，亨利六世，亨利八世，约翰王，里查二世，里查三世。 十四行诗：爱人的怨诉，鲁克丽丝失贞记，维纳斯和阿多尼斯，热情的朝圣者，凤凰和斑鸠等。 莎士比亚的戏剧大都取材于旧有剧本、小说、编年史或民间传说，但在改写中注入了自己的思想，给旧题材赋予新颖、丰富、深刻的内容。在艺术表现上，他继承古代希腊罗马、中世纪英国和文艺复兴时期欧洲戏剧的三大传统并加以发展，从内容到形式进行了创造性革新。他的戏剧不受三一律束缚，突破悲剧、喜剧界限，努力反映生活的本来面目，深入探索人物内心奥秘，从而能够塑造出众多性格复杂多样、形象真实生动的人物典型，描绘了广阔的 、五光十色的社会生活图景，并以其博大、深刻、富于诗意和哲理著称。 莎士比亚的戏剧是为当时英国的舞台和观众写作的大众化的戏剧。因而，它的悲喜交融、雅俗共赏以及时空自由 、极力调动观众想象来弥补舞台的简陋等特点，曾在18世纪遭到以伏尔泰为代表的古典主义者的指摘，并在演出时被任意删改。莎剧的真正价值，直到19世纪初，在柯尔律治和哈兹里特等批评家的阐发下，才开始为人们所认识。然而当时的莎剧演出仍常被纳入5幕结构剧的模式 。19世纪末 ，W·波埃尔和H·格兰威尔·巴克强烈反对当时莎剧演出的壮观传统 ，提倡按伊丽莎白时代剧场不用布景的方式演出，以恢复其固有特点。 17世纪始，莎士比亚戏剧传入德、法、意、俄、北欧诸国，然后渐及美国乃至世界各地，对各国戏剧发展产生了巨大、深远的影响，并已成为世界文化发展、交流的重要纽带和灵感源泉。中国从本世纪初开始介绍和翻译莎剧，到1978年出版了在朱生豪译本基础上经全面校订、补译的11卷《莎士比亚全集》。1902年，上海圣约翰书院学生最早用英语演出《威尼斯商人》。据不完全统计，中国先后有65个职业和业余演出团体 ，以英 、汉 、藏 、蒙 、粤5种语言 ，文明戏、现代话剧、戏曲、广播剧、芭蕾舞剧 、木偶剧6种形式 ，共演出莎剧21部，包括了莎剧大部分重要作品。莎剧已成为中国中学、大学特别是戏剧院校的教材。莎剧的重要角色为中国演员的培养和提高开辟了广阔天地。 莎士比亚给世人留下了三十七部戏剧，其中包括一些他与别人合写的一般剧作。此外，他还写有一百五十四首十四行诗和三、四首长诗。 就莎士比亚的天才、成就和声望而言，他的名字未能在本册中名列前茅看来有点离奇。我把莎士比亚排得这样低，不是因为我不赏识他的艺术成就，而是我认为文学艺术人物一般说来对人类历史影响较小。 宗教领袖、科学家、政治家、探险家、哲学家或发明家的活动经常影响到人类奋斗的许多其他领域的发展。例如，科学的进展对经济和政治事物已经产生了巨大的影响，也影响了宗教信仰、哲学观点和艺术的发展。 一位著名的画家，虽然可能对后来的画家的作品影响很大，但是他对音乐和文学可能带来的影响却微乎其微，对探险和其他人类奋斗的领域实际上则毫无影响可言。类似的说法也适合于诗人、剧作家和音乐作曲家。一般说来，文艺人物只对文艺有影响，实际上只对他们所从事的那个特殊领域有影响。正是由于这种原因，没有一名文学、音乐或美术人物被列进前三十名，且只有少数几个人物才被列入本册。 那么为什么本册中有文艺人物呢？这是因为欣赏文艺对每个人的生活有一定的直接影响（虽然这种影响并不总是很大），换句话说，一个人可能会花一部分时间听音乐，一部分时间读书，一部分时间作画，等等。即使我们听音乐的时间对我们的其他活动毫无影响（这肯定是种夸张的说法），这一部分时间仍然代表着我们生活中的无聊时间。 一位艺术家对我们生活的影响可能比我们听、读或看他的作品所花的时间还要多。这是因为他的作品很可能对其他作家的创作活动产生影响，他们的作品为我们所体验和赏识。 在有些情况下，文艺作品或多或少地有些明确的哲学内容，这会影响我们对其他问题的看法。当然文学作品比音乐或美术作品更经常是如此这般。例如，在《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（第三幕，第一场）中，莎士比亚让亲王说：“对杀人的凶手不能讲慈悲，否则就是鼓励杀人。”这里提出的观点（不管人们接受与否）具有鲜明的哲学内容，可能会对人们的政治态度产生影响，而不是其他如欣赏“蒙娜丽莎”所产生的影响。 莎士比亚在所有的文学人物中首屈一指，这看来是无容置辩的。相对来说，今天很少有人谈乔叟、维吉尔、甚至荷马的作品，但是要上演一部莎士比亚的戏剧，肯定会有很多观众。莎士比亚创造词汇的天才是无与伦比的，他的话常被引用——甚至包括从未看过或读过他的戏剧的人。况且他的名气也并非昙花一现。近四百年来他的作品一直给读者和评论家带来了许多欢乐。由于莎士比亚的作品已经接受住了时间的考验，因此在将来的许许多多世纪里也将会受到普遍欢迎，这一推测看来不无道理。 在评价莎士比亚的影响时，我们应该这样考虑，如果没有他，就根本不会有他的作品（当然类似的论断适合于每一位文学艺术人物，但是这个因素在评价一般的艺术家的影响时看来并不特别重要）。 据统计，莎士比亚用此高达两网格以上。它广泛采用民间语言（如民谣、俚语、古谚语和滑稽幽默的散文等），注意吸收外来词汇，还大量运用比喻、隐喻、双关语，可谓集当时英语之大成。莎剧中许多语句已成为现代英语中的成语、典故和格言。相对而言，他早期的剧作喜欢用华丽铿锵的词句；后来的成熟作品则显得更得心应手，既能用丰富多样的语言贴切而生动的表现不同人物的特色，也能用朴素自然的词句传达扣人心弦的感情和思想。 虽然莎士比亚用英文写作，但是他是一位真正闻名世界的人物。虽然英语不完全是一种世界语言，但是它比任何其它语言都更接近世界语言。而且莎士比亚的作品被译成许多种文学，许多国家都读他的著作，上演他的戏剧。 当然有些受欢迎的作家的作品也会受到文学评论家的轻视，但是莎士比亚就不同了，文学学者都不遗余力地赞扬他的作品。世世代代的戏剧家都研究他的作品，企图获得他的文学气质。正是因为莎士比亚对其他作家有巨大的影响和不断受到大众的赏识，才使他在本书中获得相当高的名次。 某版本的莎翁戏剧集中的序言，有一段这样的话： 他通过具有强大艺术力量的形象，从他的那些典型的、同时又具有鲜明个性的主人公的复杂的关系中，从他们的行动和矛盾中去揭示出他们的性格。戏剧中放射出的强烈的人文主义思想光芒，以及卓越而大胆的艺术技巧，其意义早已超出了他的时代和国家的范围。 对文学界造成如此大的影响，难怪他的朋友、著名的戏剧家本·琼孙说：“他不只属于一个时代而属于全世纪。” 最后一点不得不提的是----- 莎士比亚与世界图书与版权日 4月23日，对于世界文学领域是一个具有象征性的日子，因为塞万提斯、威廉·莎士比亚和加尔西拉索·德·拉·维加都在1616年的这一天去世。此外，4月23日也是另一些著名作家出生或去世的日子，如莫里斯·德律恩、拉克斯内斯、佛拉吉米尔·纳博科夫、约瑟·普拉和曼努埃尔·梅希亚?巴列霍。 很自然地，1995年在巴黎召开的联合国教科文组织大会选择这一天，向全世界的书籍和作者表示敬意；鼓励每个人，尤其是年轻人，去发现阅读的快乐，并再度对那些为促进人类的社会和文化进步做出无以替代的贡献的人表示尊敬。 1995年11月，联合国教科文组织第二十八次大会通过决议，宣布每年4月23日为世界图书和版权日。 版权即著作权，是指文学、艺术、科学作品的作者对其作品享有的权利（包括财产权、人身权）。版权的取得有两种方式：自动取得和登记取得。我国的著作权法规定，作品完成就自动有版权。
哎哟 这个可有一点难度呢亲，需要的话 也可以给你呢。
论文的题目是画龙点睛的神来之笔,是提纲挈领的综述概要。下面是我带来的关于英国文学 毕业 论文题目大全的内容，欢迎阅读参考! 英国文学毕业论文题目大全(一) 1. 《浮士德》的善恶冲突论 2. 论《浮士德》思想体系的矛盾 3. 论卢梭《忏悔录》的自审意识与超俗意识 4. 济慈及其《夜莺颂》的美学魅力 5. 欧洲社会的讽刺画卷——《唐璜》浅析 6. 论雨果的人道主义思想 7. 《巴黎圣母院》中的美丑对照原则 8. 论《红与黑》中于连的形象 9. 论司汤达小说心理描写的艺术 10. 司汤达在现代小说史上的地位 11. 成功与幻灭——拉斯蒂涅(《高老头》)与吕西安(《红与白》)之比较 12. 巴尔扎克小说的现代 文化 意蕴 13. 论《包法利夫人》 14. 19世纪英国女小说家研究 15. 《傲慢与偏见》的戏剧叙述 16. 夏洛蒂·勃朗笔下的女性形象系统 17. 《呼啸山庄》的叙述技巧与结构艺术 18. 试析《简·爱》和《呼啸山庄》的情感模式 19. 《呼啸山庄》与《金锁记》情感世界之比较 20. 梅里美中短篇小说的艺术魅力 21. 《茶花女》的悲剧艺术 英国文学毕业论文题目大全(二) 1. 茶花女与杜十娘比较 2. 从蒙太里尼形象看《牛虻》的反宗教主题 3. 论哈代小说中的新女性形象 4. 莫泊桑、契诃夫、欧·亨利艺术风格之比较 5. 论威尔斯的科学幻想小说 6. 论《恶之花》的历史地位与意义 7. 略论马克·吐温的艺术风格 8. 易卜生《玩偶之家》娜拉形象 9. 易卜生有肖伯纳的“社会问题剧”的异同论 10. 19世纪俄国文学中“多余人”的形象 11. 俄罗斯文学中的妇女形象 12. 果戈理《死魂灵》的讽刺艺术 13. 屠格涅夫笔下的女性形象 14. 屠格涅夫的抒情手法 15. 屠格涅夫与郁达夫比较研究 16. 论陀思妥耶夫斯基的长篇小说 17. 谈陀思妥耶夫斯基小说中的景物描写 18. 陀思妥耶夫斯基与现代派文学 19. “现代性”历史文化语境中的鲁迅与陀思妥耶夫斯基 英国文学毕业论文题目大全(三) 1. 古希腊神话 传说 中的文化精神 2. 英雄符码及其解构——荷马史诗主要史诗主要形象论析 3. 论《俄狄浦斯王》的冲突艺术美 4. 论《美狄亚》在戏剧发展史上的重要意义 5. 从古希腊到18世纪西方文学中人的观念 6. 《埃涅阿斯纪》主题的原型意义 7. 试论__伦理在西方文学中的演变 8. 但丁与__文化 9. 哥特式小说的原理与发展 10. 中国武侠小说与骑士文学的比较 11. 《堂吉诃德》的多重意义 12. 论流浪汉小说的艺术特征 13. 试论《威尼斯商人》的冲突艺术 14. 《奥瑟罗》悲剧冲突艺术 15. 论《李尔王》的人文主义思想 16. 论《亨利四世》中的福斯塔夫形象 17. 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》与《西厢记》抒情艺术之比较 18. 试论莎士比亚喜剧风格 19. 莎士比亚悲剧风格的特殊性及其历史意义 20. 论《汤姆·琼斯》人物刻画的美学原则
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
在中国和西方（我们涉及的主要是欧洲）之间，由于戏剧产生的渊源不同，加之异民族间的文化和文学传统的差异，中西两种戏剧样式在处理舞台与现实的矛盾问题时，采取了明显不同的形式技巧，这就形成了中西戏剧各自的鲜明特点，尤其值得我们关注的是结构特点。 依据不同的结构特点，寻找不同的解读路径，进入中西两种戏剧的深层去鉴赏、发现。这样，我们就为两个戏剧单元找到了不同的鉴赏主题和重点。【西式话剧的内部构造法则 】 西方戏剧，起源于古希腊悲剧。它的定义是：对一个严肃、完整、有一定长度的行动的摹仿。（亚里士多德《诗学》） “悲剧和别的戏剧形式一样，与一般艺术的区别在于它用真人为媒介，生动逼真地摹仿一个行动。小说、史诗或甚至一幅画，都可能具有悲剧意味，但它们只是间接地表现一个行动，它们的主要兴趣也只在人物性格的刻画。所以亚里士多德在评价悲剧各个成分的相对重要性时，把情节放在首位。 这种追求摹仿现实、再现“行动”的立意，带来了欧洲古典戏剧结构上的金科玉律：“三整一律” （亚里士多德《诗学》）。剧作家要用精巧的结构，把拉杂散漫的现实生活重新布局，让它能够合理地限制在一方舞台、一个晚上的演出中，把剧作家想要表现的生活”第一人称”地真实再现出来。 处理三篇课文所选的戏剧片断，也依循这一思路来设计阅读的“切入点”，设计问题，也许是引导学生迅速把握作品本质的准确门径。 【中国传统戏曲别样的风格 】 中国传统戏曲，在发生学上与宋、金说唱文学有重要的渊源，比如宋代的“说话”，宋金两代的“诸宫调”。“诸宫调者，小说之支流，而被以乐曲者也。是叙事体，而非代言体。”（王国维《宋元戏曲考》）所以，“元杂剧由一种脚色主唱，有不少地方还带有叙述体残留痕迹。”（顾学颉《元人杂剧选》前言） 以此，面对戏剧艺术形式的永恒矛盾：舞台时空限制与现实时空的无限制，中国传统戏曲从源头起就走上了与西方戏剧不同的道路。西方戏剧通过结构的技巧，颠倒时空，在舞台上摹仿、再现现实；中国传统戏曲则保留了叙事性和时间顺序，但简化它，而强调具体时空内的抒情性。表面上看，这是中国戏笨拙的地方。它没有过好在舞台上“摹仿自然”这一关。但这也恰好形成了它特殊的风格，即抒情性。中国传统戏曲简化叙事，强调抒情。 中国戏曲没有强求在两三个小时的舞台上逼真再现现实生活的广阔时空，相反它利用说白、人物自述等方法直接交代、反复交代故事。（例：鲁侍萍）元杂剧由于一个角色唱到底的限制、一本四折一楔子的时空限制，将敷衍故事放入说白中。到了连本杂剧《西厢记》，以及明清传奇剧，一本四五十出，一次很难演完，形成了后来“折子戏”的演出潮流，故事更退化成了家喻户晓的背景。戏剧不以表现故事情节为主要目的，而将唱词、表演聚焦于人物在特定境遇中的情感抒发。中国传统戏曲比起西方戏剧传统而言，更重抒情性，富于诗意。
1、 (英语系毕业论文)中西戏剧发展快慢对比及其原因 摘 要 中西戏剧都有悠久的历史，无论是西方戏剧还是中国戏剧，都起源于民间，并与原始人祭祀神灵，欢庆节日的仪式密切联系在一起的。回顾希腊戏剧产生形成的历史，它发展快，成就高，在世界上的影响很... 类别：毕业论文 大小：95 KB 日期：2007-07-14 2、 (英语系毕业论文)从中美管理方式的不同透析中西方文化差异与整合 摘 要随着全球化的来临，中国与外界的交流越来越频繁，特别是在商界。本论文主要探讨中美在管理上的交流。如今的商界，如同一个大家庭，参与者遍布世界各地。正是由于这个原因，各国的管理模式也趋于一体化。但是... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-26 3、 (英语系毕业论文)在经济全球化下中西方文化差异与跨文化管理 摘 要伴随着世界经济的快速增长,跨国公司的飞速发展, 全球商业活动的猛烈激增，同时伴随着在文化多样化环境下的相关管理问题的出现，跨国公司的人员必须与来自不同文化背景的人打交道，这种文化差异时而会造成... 类别：毕业论文 大小：96 KB 日期：2007-06-26 4、 (英语系毕业论文)中西服饰文化差异对语言的影响 摘 要中西服饰受其各自不同哲学和文化的影响体现出不同的特征：儒家思想和大陆文明使中国服饰呈现出繁冗，宽博的特征。它不注重外表的装饰，以宽松的衣服遮掩身体的曲线，在思想上追求人格的完美，以“谦谦君... 类别：毕业论文 大小：90 KB 日期：2007-06-25 5、 (英语系毕业论文)快餐食品对中西方传统饮食文化的影响力 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：88 KB 日期：2007-06-25 6、 (英语系毕业论文)从礼仪角度谈中西文化的差异性 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-23 7、 (英语系毕业论文)中西饮食文化及其差异 摘 要中国悠久历史5000年，西方世界五六百年的社会历程。中国有灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化；西方国家则有精巧专维、自成体系的饮食文明。民以食为天，中国有自己独特丰富的饮食文化底蕴。然而今天除了中国... 类别：毕业论文 大小：100 KB 日期：2007-06-21 8、 (英语系毕业论文)中西酒店文化比较及探讨 摘 要在经济蓬勃发展的今天，旅游业风风火火地发展起来了，作为与旅游业相配套的酒店业也相应的完善起来，且更加趋于国际化。中国已经入世，这更给中国的酒店业带来一个新的发展契机，但世界上酒店发展规模空前，...
中西戏剧都具有悠久的历史，无论是西方还是中国，戏剧都是起源于民间，是和原始人祭祀神灵、欢庆节日的仪式密切联系在一起的。但由于地理环境、社会的经济、政治情况不同，民族习惯、文化意识、艺术传统的区别，中西戏剧在发展中走着不同的历史道路，在内容和艺术形式上呈现出很大的差异，把中西戏剧的发展历史加以比较探讨，研究中西戏剧起源、形成和发展上的异同，对于我们进一步探索总体戏剧规律，识别中西戏剧的不同特质，是一个有意义、有吸引力的课题，同时也是一个难度很大的课题，这需要许多人共同努力才能完成。本文仅就中西戏剧起源、形成过程作一比较探讨，提出自己的一些看法。一西方戏剧是从古希腊戏剧开始的。古希腊的戏剧是由民间的宗教仪式演变而来，具体地说，就是起源于农村祭酒神的颂歌。古希腊人信仰“泛神论”，在宗教上没有出现至高无上的神的主宰，神话中诸神具有与人同形同性的特点，而且各有“分工”。在古希腊神话中，酒神狄奥倪索斯原是掌管万物之神，后来成为酒与葡萄之神。古代希腊人为了祈祷、欢庆丰收和酬谢酒神，每年春秋两季都举行酒神祭奠，春季是庆贺新酒开樽，秋季是为收获葡萄和制酒而举行祭礼。相传酒神曾周游世界，受过许多磨难，但他战胜一切困难，在老师西靳诺斯、半人半山羊侍者萨提耳和狂女随从下，乘着一辆兽拉的车子，到处传授酿酒的方法，获得了人们对他的崇拜。对酒神的崇拜后来形成为一种宗教，每到举行祭奠的时候，人们就组成合唱队，在山羊的供品周围，轮番地唱着颂扬酒神的赞美歌，边歌边舞。神话以至祭祀，是原始人心理的产物，在古希腊人心中，狄奥倪索斯是一个富有精神和阳气的神，是生命力坚强的象征。他们对酒神的崇拜，实际上是对生命的精灵的崇拜，是对人类的生活力的崇拜。这种祭祀酒神的歌舞，有的表现人们对酒神的畏惧和敬仰，雄浑悲壮；有的则唱着颂扬酒神的歌曲，举行欢乐歌舞的游行表演，这就是后来古希腊悲剧和喜剧的雏形。世界上任何古剧的产生都是走歌、舞、故事表演结合的道路。古希腊人赞美酒神的颂歌之所以能成为后来戏剧的源体，是和神话中酒神受难的传说分不开的。酒神颂就是以狄奥倪索斯的遭遇为题材。它虽然是以歌舞的形式出现，但已不是一般的歌和舞，而是具有浓厚的宗教意识，是和有关酒神的简单的故事联系在一起的。在古希腊，首先使圆舞台合唱形式的酒神颂歌具有艺术上的表演因素的是阿瑞翁。他是一个合唱队的指挥者，在担任合唱队指挥时，一面指挥，一面把自己当做酒神似地说唱，回答合唱队的问话，表演酒神狄奥倪索斯受难的样子，而合唱队员则身穿羊皮，头戴羊角，扮成半人半山羊的样子，象征酒神的随从。这就使合唱队的合唱开始具有戏剧表演的因素，有了对话和简单情节的萌芽。后来雅典僭主庇西斯特拉妥把民间的酒神祭典引入雅典城内，变成固定的全民性的节庆，并且在酒神节庆中举行“悲剧竞赛会”，但那时的“悲剧”并不是真正的悲剧，而是一种抒情诗的分体。大约在公元前534年，雅典人忒斯庇斯在竞赛会上发展了阿瑞翁创造的说唱和表演的形式，把合唱队歌唱的故事扩大到酒神以外的传说，自己轮流扮演几个角色，跟合唱队员对话，成为古希腊第一个登台表演的演员。因为他一个人要扮演几个人，就使用了假面具；为了更换服装和面具的方便，便把原来形合唱队的中心点移到一旁，把演出者和观众分开，出现了最早的“舞台”，这就使原来以歌舞为主的酒神祭典逐步向演员的戏剧演变。同西方戏剧的起源相比，中国戏剧的起源是一个比较复杂的问题。中国戏剧也是起源于民间，由于它形式特殊，包括说、唱、念、打等因素，是更为综合的艺术，因而是多源的，寻起“根”来，不像西方戏剧那么“单一”和明确。中国戏剧歌舞成分很浓，在这方面，它的源头可以溯到原始时代的歌舞。我国古代歌舞早在原始时代就已出现。《书经·舜典》上说：“予击石拊石，百兽率舞。”《吕氏春秋·古乐》篇中也说：“葛天氏之乐，三人操牛尾，投足而歌八阕。”前者写的是一群原始猎人披着各种兽皮跳舞，用击石和打石作为节奏；后者写的是原始人手持牛尾，边跳边唱的情景。这种歌舞可能是原始人打猎前后的一种宗教仪式和庆祝仪式，带有祈祷和酬谢神祗的性质。到了奴隶社会，歌舞被奴隶主用于娱神敬祖，也为自己歌功颂德。周朝的颂舞，是祭祀时的一种仪式，《周颂》就是它的歌词。但是在民间仍然保留有一些旧有的节日和敬神的歌舞，例如“傩”舞，就是当时农村的一种逐鬼除疫的仪式，舞者都戴假面具，这种舞蹈对后来农村的歌舞、戏曲有很深的影响。又如“巫”舞，也是一种祭祀鬼神的歌舞，它是由上古的巫祝仪式演变而来的。春秋的楚国，巫风很盛，屈原的《九歌》就是为了楚怀王祀鬼神而将民间“巫”舞的歌词加以改作而成的。从《九歌》中，我们可以看到当时的乐器、舞蹈和歌唱的种类和形式，有明显的审美的意识，不只是祭祀的歌舞，孕育有后来戏剧的一些基本因素。中国戏剧中喜剧基因特别发达，而那种借助语言、动作，诙谐笑谑、插科打诨的喜剧传统，主要是来自古代的优人，所以古优也是中国戏剧的源。由贵族豢养的“优”西周末年就已出现，春秋战国时已有优人活动的记载，最初见于《国语·郑语》。【1】古代的优，也称“倡优”或“俳优”，都是男子充任，他们是我国最早的“艺人”。《国语·晋语》中有一段关于优施的详细记载，从记载中我们看到当时的优人是能歌又能舞的。《史记·滑稽列传》中，也有楚国优孟扮已故宰相孙叔敖形象的记载，从中可以看出，优不但能歌能舞，还能模仿别人的言语行动。后世把优孟扮孙叔敖这件事，叫“优孟衣冠”，有人还把这当作中国戏剧的起源；但根据记载的材料，优孟的模仿孙叔敖，目的是为了对楚庄王进行讽谏，并没有什么故事情节，只能说是出现了戏剧中变身为他者的表演因素的萌芽。古代优人的活动，更多的是以俏皮的语言来进行嘲讽和讥谏。《滑稽列传》中还有优旃谏秦始皇的一段记载：“优旃者，秦倡侏儒也，善为言笑，然合于大道。……始皇尝欲广大苑囿，东至函谷关，西至雍陈仓。优旃曰：‘善，多纵禽兽于其中，寇从东方来，令麋鹿触之足矣！’始皇以故缀止。”此外，也有长于竞技的优。《国语·晋语》中说：“侏儒扶卢。”就是说侏儒以爬矛戟的把为游戏，供人笑乐。古代优人的职业，除了歌舞外，最主要的是供人取乐，所以多是侏儒担任，因为侏儒身材短小，更能引人发笑。优人供人取乐的技艺很多，但突出的特点是语言上的幽默讽刺。古代歌舞和古优作为中国戏剧的源，在时间上有远近之差，对中国戏剧形成所起的作用也不一样，前者主要是提供歌舞表演的因素，后者则提供语言、动作模仿的因素。优人的调戏歌舞和古代歌舞有一定的继承关系，但古代歌舞带有浓厚的宗教色彩，而优人的表演艺术却纯粹是娱人的。优的出现，说明古代人的审美观念已发生了变化，由幻想的鬼神世界转到面向人生。中国戏剧是多种艺术的综合，有歌、舞、乐以及诙谐嘲笑等因素，也有杂技、武术和故事表演的因素。无论从戏剧中的杂技、武术因素，还是从故事表演的因素看，都和中国古代的“百戏”有直接的关系。古代的“百戏”，是乐舞杂技表演的总称，秦汉时已出现，又称“角抵戏”。角抵，就是两人摔跤或拳斗。广义的角抵戏，不只是指摔跤，而是指各项技艺会集一起，彼此竞赛，互争优胜。这些，后来同歌唱、舞蹈等合流，成为中国戏剧中的一个重要因素：“打”。从故事表演来说，对后来戏剧有深刻影响的是那些“敷衍故事”的狭义的角抵戏。东汉张衡所作《西京赋》，描述当时角抵，说到其中有一节目，叫《东海黄公》：“东海黄公，赤刀粤祝，冀厌白虎，卒不能做，挟邪作蛊，于是不售。”东晋葛洪的《西京杂记》上也记载：“有东海人黄公，少时为术，能制蛇御虎。……秦末有白虎见于东海，黄公乃以赤刀往厌之。术既不行，遂为虎所杀。三辅人俗用以为戏，汉帝亦取以为角抵之戏焉。”从这些记载看，《东海黄公》表演的是秦代末年的一段故事，内容是黄公企图伏虎不成，是以摔跤的形式演人虎相斗。这个节日已有简单的故事，有人物扮相和白虎假形，还有简单的道具和独白似的符咒，不只是单纯竞技的表演，而且还从民间传入宫廷，在宫廷演出。这是记载中最早有故事表演的角抵戏。后来三国有《辽东妖妇》，南北朝有《代面》、《踏摇娘》等，都是这一传统的演变和发展。王国维在《宋元戏曲考》中指出，中国戏剧最早溯源于巫，战国时和俳优合流，到汉的角抵，又增加了故事情节，至南北朝时，出现《代面》、《踏摇娘》，才合歌舞以演一事，随成为后世戏曲之起源。这一论断，除溯源于巫的看法过于简单，不够准确外，从总的来看，他是揭示了中国戏剧起源的若干本质方面的。中国戏剧起源虽然是一个比较复杂的问题，但是通过溯源寻踪，还是可以看到它的历史状貌。我们拿中西戏剧的起源作一比较，可以看到它们有若干共同点，也有许多很相同的地方。共同的是：都是来自民间，源远流长；都与祭祀敬神一类的宗教仪式有密切关系，不同程度地表现出古代人对神的观念；而且都是首先发源于歌舞。不同的地方是：第一，西方戏剧起源于祭酒神的颂歌，源头明确；中国戏剧的起源是多源的，比较复杂；第二，西方戏剧起源于酒神祭典，带有浓厚的宗教色彩，神秘的、幻想的、悲剧性的基因多；中国戏剧的起源，虽也和一定的宗教仪式有关，但俳优的活动，角抵表演等却都是娱人的，主要是现世的人的娱乐性活动，现实的、技艺性的、喜剧性的基因多；第三，西方戏剧是从歌舞演变而来，即由歌舞逐渐演变为故事表演；中国戏剧则是通过它们彼此的汇合、交织来实现。中西戏剧起源的共同之处，反映出世界古剧发端的一些共同的规律，而它们的不同之处，则让我们看到中西戏剧在渊源和传统上的差异。二戏剧是一种多种要素构成的综合艺术，构成戏剧的基本要素是：演员、剧本、观众和使戏剧得以实现的剧场。其中演员是最本质的要素，戏剧演员扮演剧中人物和表演戏剧性情节是戏剧艺术必不可少的条件。在戏剧形成过程中，只是一个演员的时候，很难表演戏剧性情节，因为戏剧性情节是由戏剧冲突产生的，必须有两个以上的演员，戏剧冲突才能展开，戏剧性情节才会出现，真正的戏剧才能完成。在古希腊，舞台上第二个演员的出现，是从著名悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯开始的。埃斯库罗斯是古希腊第一个悲剧诗人，他创作悲剧，还亲自上台表演，担任第一演员。由于第二个演员的出现，合唱队的抒情成分减少了，有了正式的对话，有了戏剧冲突，戏剧表演就向前迈进了一步。所以，古希腊戏剧的形式是以埃斯库罗斯为标志的。第三个演员的出现，是从古希腊的另一位著名悲剧诗人索福克勒斯开始的，演员人数增加到三个，悲剧的情节和人物的性格才能够充分展开，使希腊悲剧得以发展和完善。在古希腊第三位著名悲剧诗人欧里庇得斯的戏剧里，合唱队只作为一种传统的形式被保存下来，和剧情没有密切的关系，故事表演已成为戏剧的主要内容。古希腊喜剧发展比悲剧晚一些，大约在公元前486年前后，雅典开始有了喜剧竞赛会，从此喜剧就逐渐发展和繁荣起来。古希腊喜剧的代表作家是阿里斯托芬。戏剧得以实现的物理空间是剧场，有了剧场，演员才能演出，观众才能观看，所以剧场的出现和改善，也是戏剧形成、发展的一个标志。在原始“戏剧”出现时，演出的地方都是在酒神神坛附近，在神坛和安置供品的地方围一个圆圈，后来才有了固定的地点。及至公元前5世纪，在民主派领袖伯里克利执政期间，为了适应全民性的戏剧竞赛活动的需要，在阿库罗伯里斯丘陵的斜坡上，建造了一个规模宏大的露天大剧场，观众的座位一排一排地沿着山坡上升。演员们在露天剧场演戏，为了加强演戏效果，都戴假面具，穿厚底靴，借以扩大声音、面部和形体。伯里克利执政时期，是雅典的“黄金时代”，也是古希腊戏剧最繁荣的时期。当时在酒神节庆所举行的悲剧竞赛会规模很大，每年这个时候，雅典城的大多数公民都到剧场看戏，观众很多；他们看到好的戏就叫好，看到不满意的戏就起哄；有的戏不受欢迎，演不下去，不得中断演出。在剧场里，观众不仅是被动的鉴赏者，而且常常左右戏剧的效果，成为刺激和促进戏剧创造的积极的因素。